The relationship between them has been interpreted by some authors from Roman times onwards as romantic or homoerotic. thecollector.com - Nicole Hansen. We work hard to protect your security and privacy. Pirithous took up his arms and the pair met to do battle but were so impressed with each other's gracefulness, beauty and courage they took an oath of friendship. Sappho is thought to have written close to 12,000 lines of poetry on her love for other women. Hephaestion studied with Alexander, as did a handful of other children of Ancient Macedonian aristocracy, under the tutelage of Aristotle. Ancient Greece was not one state, it was a collection of city states, each independent, with their own laws and practices. Parker, "The Teratogenic Grid," p. 57, citing Martial 5.61 and 4.43. [66] The outsized phallus of the god Priapus may originally have served an apotropaic purpose, but in art it is frequently laughter-provoking or grotesque. This groundbreaking study, among the earliest syntheses on female homosexuality throughout Antiquity, explores the topic with careful reference to ancient concepts and views, drawing fully on the existing visual and written record including literary, philosophical, and scientific documents. Nevertheless, it is not certain that those in submission will enjoy such trainings from his mentor- including sexual favors. They are sometimes considered a transgender or transsexual priesthood, since they were required to be castrated in imitation of Attis. Richlin, "Not before Homosexuality," p. 538. includes a preface by David Halperin. As a characteristic of males, it often implies the willingness to be penetrated. It is now believed that this may be an artistic convention provoked by reluctance on the part of the Greeks to openly acknowledge that Greek males could enjoy taking on a "female" role in an erotic relationship;[57] reputation for such pleasure could have consequences to the future image of the former eromenos when he turned into an adult, and hinder his ability to participate in the socio-political life of the polis as a respectable citizen. [10] Roman ideals of masculinity were thus premised on taking an active role that was also, as Craig A. Williams has noted, "the prime directive of masculine sexual behavior for Romans". He was "by far the dearest of all the king's friends; he had been brought up with Alexander and shared all his secrets. A man who wore women's clothes, Ulpian notes, would risk making himself the object of scorn. [20], Among the works of Roman literature that can be read today, those of Plautus are the earliest to survive in full to modernity, and also the first to mention homosexuality. Holmen, Nicole. Therefore, their portrayal may have been intended to provide a source of ribald humor rather than sexual titillation to visitors of the building. Apuleius indicates that cinaedi might form social alliances for mutual enjoyment, such as hosting dinner parties. This book will be of value to students and scholars of ancient sexuality and gender, and to anyone interested in histories and theories of sexuality. She is the author of numerous articles on issues of gender and sexuality in the ancient world and the French translator of John Winkler and Maud Gleason. The conquest mentality and "cult of virility" shaped same-sex relations. It was an affectionate word[131] traditionally used for a boy (puer)[132] who was loved by someone "in an obscene sense". [151], Although in general the Romans regarded marriage as a malefemale union for the purpose of producing children, a few scholars believe that in the early Imperial period some male couples were celebrating traditional marriage rites in the presence of friends. A conviction for killing an officer typically resulted in execution. [95] A military officer on campaign might be accompanied by a concubinus. Martial describes, for example, the case of an older man who played the passive role and let a younger slave occupy the active role. Are Women Less Modest than Menor Vice-Versa? [40] Even those who argue that pederasty was limited to the upper classes generally concede that it was "part of the social structure of the polis".[39]. Greek cultural attitudes differed from those of the Romans primarily in idealizing eros between freeborn male citizens of equal status, though usually with a difference of age (see "Pederasty in ancient Greece"). [81] Although in some contexts cinaedus may denote an anally passive man[80] and is the most frequent word for a male who allowed himself to be penetrated anally,[82] a man called cinaedus might also have sex with and be considered highly attractive to women. [158] Although Cicero's sexual implications are clear, the point of the passage is to cast Antony in the submissive role in the relationship and to impugn his manhood in various ways; there is no reason to think that actual marriage rites were performed. [209] The Latin poet Laevius wrote of worshipping "nurturing Venus" whether female or male (sive femina sive mas). Instead, they consort with women, just like men. "Why Were The Ancient Greeks So Confused About Homosexuality, Asks James Davidson", Homosexuality in the militaries of ancient Greece, Personal relationships of Alexander the Great, "Courtship Scenes in Attic Vase-Painting", "Popular Perceptions of Elite Homosexuality in Classical Athens", The legacy of same-sex love in ancient Thebes, "OVID, HEROIDES IV - Theoi Classical Texts Library", "Why were the ancient Greeks so confused about homosexuality, asks James Davidson". Even today, ancient female homosexuals are still too often seen in terms of a mythical, ethereal Sapphic love, or stereotyped as "Amazons" or courtesans. In other words, a 'train' is being alluded to: the first man penetrates the second, who in turn penetrates the third. At one time he had written that same-sex lovers were far more blessed than ordinary mortals. Other ancients such as Xenophon held that Achilles and Patroclus were simply close friends. Latin had such a wealth of words for men outside the masculine norm that some scholars[148] argue for the existence of a homosexual subculture at Rome; that is, although the noun "homosexual" has no straightforward equivalent in Latin, literary sources reveal a pattern of behaviors among a minority of free men that indicate same-sex preference or orientation. [155], Roman law addressed the rape of a male citizen as early as the 2nd century BC,[159] when it was ruled that even a man who was "disreputable and questionable" (famosus, related to infamis, and suspiciosus) had the same right as other free men not to have his body subjected to forced sex. Brief content visible, double tap to read full content. [76], Pathicus and cinaedus are often not distinguished in usage by Latin writers, but cinaedus may be a more general term for a male not in conformity with the role of vir, a "real man", while pathicus specifically denotes an adult male who takes the sexually receptive role. Female Homosexuality in Ancient Greece and Rome - 1st Edition - Sandra Black Friday 30% Off All Titles Shop Now SAVE $13.49 1st Edition Female Homosexuality in Ancient Greece and Rome By Sandra Boehringer Copyright Year 2021 ISBN 9780367744762 Published September 7, 2021 by Routledge 424 Pages 7 B/W Illustrations Request eBook Inspection Copy [7], The most common form of same-sex relationships between elite males in Greece was paiderastia (pederasty), meaning "boy love". [112] A slave would never be considered a vir, a "real man"; he would be called puer, "boy", throughout his life. Bring your club to Amazon Book Clubs, start a new book club and invite your friends to join, or find a club thats right for you for free. Ancient Greek Pederasty: Education or Exploitation? Web log. Now available in English for the first time, Female Homosexuality in Ancient Greece and Rome includes a preface by David Halperin. This older man would educate the youth in the ways of Greek life and the responsibilities of adulthood. He was to educate, protect, love, and provide a role model for his eromenos, whose reward for him lay in his beauty, youth, and promise. [205] In the "mock trial" exercise presented by the elder Seneca,[206] the young man (adulescens) was gang-raped while wearing women's clothes in public, but his attire is explained as his acting on a dare by his friends, not as a choice based on gender identity or the pursuit of erotic pleasure. Alexander died soon after receiving this letter; Mary Renault suggests that his grief over Hephaestion's death had led him to be careless with his health. It is unclear how such relations between same-sex partners were regarded in the general society, especially for women, but examples do exist as far back as the time of Sappho. Sappho, a poet from the island of Lesbos, wrote many love poems addressed to women and girls. 218, 224. [162] Men who had been raped were exempt from the loss of legal or social standing suffered by those who submitted their bodies to use for the pleasure of others; a male prostitute or entertainer was infamis and excluded from the legal protections extended to citizens in good standing. She is the author of numerous articles on issues of gender and sexuality in the ancient world and the French translator of John Winkler and Maud Gleason. [43] Even Ovid himself, however, did not claim exclusive heterosexuality[44] and he does include mythological treatments of homoeroticism in the Metamorphoses,[45] but Thomas Habinek has pointed out that the significance of Ovid's rupture of human erotics into categorical preferences has been obscured in the history of sexuality by a later heterosexual bias in Western culture. Quintus Fabius Maximus Eburnus, a consul in 116 BC and later a censor known for his moral severity, earned his cognomen meaning "Ivory" (the modern equivalent might be "Porcelain") because of his fair good looks (candor). The romance between Pausanias and Agathon in Athens, made famous by their appearance in Plato's Symposium, also continued from the pederastic phase into adulthood as a stable and long-lasting relationship. [56] This may also explain why anal penetration is seen more often in Roman homoerotic art than in its Greek counterpart, where non-penetrative intercourse predominates.[56]. She has also co-edited several collective volumes, including Foucault, la sexualit, lAntiquit, soon to be available in English from Routledge. Boehringers scholarly book replaces these cliches with rigorous, precise analysis of iconography and texts by Sappho, Plato, Ovid, Juvenal, and many other lyric poets, satirists, and medical writers, in search of the prevailing norms, constraints, and possibilities for erotic desire. [177], In warfare, rape symbolized defeat, a motive for the soldier not to make his body sexually vulnerable in general. Preface to the English Translation (2020), by Sandra Boehringer, Preface to Sandra Boehringer, LHomosexualit fminine dans lAntiquit grecque et romaine, Paris: Les Belles Lettres, 2007, by David Halperin, 2.3.3.2.1.2. [139] Juvenal indicates the pusio was more desirable than women because he was less quarrelsome and would not demand gifts from his lover. Session 3. It looks like WhatsApp is not installed on your phone. Polybius (2nd century BC) reports that the punishment for a soldier who willingly submitted to penetration was the fustuarium, clubbing to death. When it came time for a boy to embrace the age group of the adult and to "become a man," he would leave the tribe in the company of an older man for a period of time that constituted a rite of passage. In an Atellan farce authored by Quintus Novius (a literary style seen as originally Roman), it is said by one of the characters that "everyone knows that a boy is superior to a woman"; the character goes on to list physical attributes, most of which denoting the onset of puberty, that mark boys when they are at their most attractive in the character's view. "[192], Greek words for a woman who prefers sex with another woman include hetairistria (compare hetaira, "courtesan" or "companion"), tribas (plural tribades), and Lesbia; Latin words include the loanword tribas, fricatrix ("she who rubs"), and virago. Men might have a number of women, including female slaves, but there was only one with the legal status of wife. [77] Some older men may have at times preferred the passive role. Furthermore, the boys genitals are exposed in the plaque, thus experts interpret this, and more evidence comparative to this, as the practice of pederasty. [153] As the empire was becoming Christianized in the 4th century, legal prohibitions against marriage between males began to appear. [109], In the discourse of sexuality, puer ("boy") was a role as well as an age group. [61] The man in the center may be a cinaedus, a male who liked to receive anal sex but who was also considered seductive to women. Martial 1.90 and 7.67, 50; Richlin, "Sexuality in the Roman Empire," p. 347; John R. Clarke, Ovid adduces the story of Hercules and Omphale as an explanation for the ritual nudity of the. Contrary to the art of the vessels discussed above, all sixteen images on the mural portray sexual acts considered unusual or debased according to Roman customs: e.g., female sexual domination of men, heterosexual oral sex, passive homosexuality by an adult man, lesbianism, and group sex. [96] Like the catamite or puer delicatus, the role of the concubine was regularly compared to that of Ganymede, the Trojan prince abducted by Jove (Greek Zeus) to serve as his cupbearer. As a result of her fame in antiquity, she and her land have become emblematic of love between women. Roscoe, "Priests of the Goddess," p. 204. Butrica, "Some Myths and Anomalies in the Study of Roman Sexuality," pp. [171] In a "mock trial" case described by the elder Seneca, an adulescens (a man young enough not to have begun his formal career) was gang-raped by ten of his peers; although the case is hypothetical, Seneca assumes that the law permitted the successful prosecution of the rapists. This scenario is described also by Catullus, Carmen 56, who considers it humorous. It has been noted, however, that the depictions of characters on pottery do not represent reality and may cater to the beauty standards of ancient Athens. These scholars have shown that same-sex relations were openly practised, largely with official sanction, in many areas of life from the 7th century BC until the Roman era. The complexities of gender identity in the religion of Cybele and the Attis myth are explored by Catullus in one of his longest poems, Carmen 63. [64] Negative connotations of nudity include defeat in war, since captives were stripped, and slavery, since slaves for sale were often displayed naked. These bonds, reflected in episodes from Greek mythology, such as the heroic relationship between Achilles and Patroclus in the Iliad, were thought to boost morale as well as bravery due to the desire to impress and protect their lover. RIchlin, "Not before Homosexuality," p. 531. After Hephaestion's death in Oct 324 BC, Alexander mourned him greatly and did not eat for days. These tribal communities were organized according to age groups. Female Homosexuality in Ancient Greece and Rome. [55], The treatment given to the subject in such vessels is idealized and romantic, similar to that dispensed to heterosexuality. FEMALE HOMOSEXUALITY IN ANCIENT GREECE AND ROME. An Institutionalization of Homosexuality? The Chalcidians erected a tomb for him in the marketplace in gratitude. [212] Some commentators see hermaphroditism as a "violation of social boundaries, especially those as fundamental to daily life as male and female". By continuing to use the website, you consent to our use of cookies. [111] As an age designation, the freeborn puer made the transition from childhood at around age 14, when he assumed the "toga of manhood", but he was 17 or 18 before he began to take part in public life. Artemis and Kallisto: A Comic Adaptation by Amphis, 2.4.3.2. Homoerotic themes occur throughout the works of poets writing during the reign of Augustus, including elegies by Tibullus[36] and Propertius,[37] several Eclogues of Vergil, especially the second, and some poems by Horace. As analyzed by John Pollini, "The Warren Cup: Homoerotic Love and Symposial Rhetoric in Silver,", Elizabeth Manwell, "Gender and Masculinity," in. Aeschylus in the tragedy Myrmidons made Achilles the erastes since he had avenged his lover's death even though the gods told him it would cost his own life. [citation needed], Pathicus was a "blunt" word for a male who was penetrated sexually. This is a theme throughout Carlin A. Barton, Amy Richlin, "Not before Homosexuality: The Materiality of the, Clarke, Sexuality and Visual Representation, p. 514, John R. Clarke, Sexuality and Visual Representation, in, Habinek, "The Invention of Sexuality in the World-City of Rome," in, John Pollini, "The Warren Cup: Homoerotic Love and Symposial Rhetoric in Silver,", Maria Teresa Marabini Moevs, Per una storia del gusto: riconsiderazioni sul Calice Warren,. [6] Roman society was patriarchal (see paterfamilias), and masculinity was premised on a capacity for governing oneself and others of lower status. [213] The era also saw a historical account of a congenital eunuch. Hephaestion makes his appearance in history at the point when Alexander reaches Troy. Butrica, "Some Myths and Anomalies in the Study of Roman Sexuality," p. 231. Plautus mentions a street known for male prostitutes. Now available in English for the first time, Female Homosexuality in Ancient Greece and Rome includes a preface by David Halperin. [8] Sexual conquest was a common metaphor for imperialism in Roman discourse,[9] and the "conquest mentality" was part of a "cult of virility" that particularly shaped Roman homosexual practices. The portrait emerges of an ancient society to which today's sexual categories do not applya society "before sexuality"where female homosexuality looks very different, but is nonetheless very real. Their use to draw conclusions about Roman customs or morals, however, is controversial because these works are all based on Greek originals. The Mythical Trace: the Goddess and the Young Girl, A Singular Variant: The Embrace between Artemis and Kallisto, CLASSICAL AND HELLENISTIC GREECE: FROM SILENCE TO HUMOR, The Status and Specificity of Aristophanes Speech, Eros in Aristophanes: An Eros Beyond the Sexual, The Categorization of Erotic Behaviors in Current Human Nature, After the Split but Before the Relocation of Organs, After the Split and the Relocation of Organs, Types of Erotic Behaviors and Types of Human Beings, The Halves Descended from the All-Female Being, Plato and the Category of Women Descended from the All-Female Being, The Legislators Obsession with Demography, Representations and Silences during the Classical Period, What The Images Show and What They Do Not, Women Among Themselves: Some Disputed Interpretations, The "Saids" and the "Unsaids" of the Texts, Aristotles Silence and What He Says About Doves, Texts as Indirect Documents on Representations, Play and Humor during the Hellenistic Period, Asclepiades the Poet-Character and His Loves, Epigram V. 207 and the Poetic Oeuvre of Asclepiades, From the Poets Gaze to Collective Representations, THE ROMAN PERIOD: FROM MYTHICAL FICTION TO SATIRE, Poetic Discourse: Ovid and Mythical Transformation, The Sapphic Paradox: An Overview of Reconstructions of Sappho from the Classical Greek Period Onwards, Sapphos Letter: Poetic Metamorphosis and the Metamorphosis of Love, An Ephemeral Embrace Between Women and the Metamorphoses of Desire, Textual Reminiscences and Mythical Echoes, Where the Metamorphosis Is Not That of Iphis, A Roman Impossibility: The Etiology of a Disappearance, A Manufacturing Defectand an Error of Interpretation, The Silence of Roman Law: A Clear-Cut Position, The Tribad and Astrologers (from the Second to the Fifth Century CE), The Construction of an Antonomastic Character: A Philaenis. Cross-dressing appears in Roman literature and art in various ways to mark the uncertainties and ambiguities of gender: A section of the Digest by Ulpian categorizes Roman clothing on the basis of who may appropriately wear it: vestimenta virilia, "men's clothing", is defined as the attire of the paterfamilias, "head of household"; puerilia is clothing that serves no purpose other than to mark its wearer as a "child" or minor; muliebria are the garments that characterize a materfamilias; communia, those that are "common", that is, worn by either sex; and familiarica, clothing for the familia, the subordinates in a household, including the staff and slaves. [164], Fears of mass rape following a military defeat extended equally to male and female potential victims. [9][bettersourceneeded], The roots of Greek pederasty lie in the tribal past of Greece, before the rise of the city-state as a unit of political organization. [32] The Latin name and freeborn status of the beloved subvert Roman tradition. [117], The puer delicatus was an "exquisite" or "dainty" child-slave chosen by his master for his beauty as a "boy toy",[119] also referred to as .mw-parser-output .vanchor>:target~.vanchor-text{background-color:#b1d2ff}deliciae ("sweets" or "delights"). The dialogue Erotes ("Affairs of the Heart"), attributed to Lucian, compares the merits and advantages of heteroeroticism and homoeroticism, and Orestes and Pylades are presented as the principal representatives of a loving friendship. [27] A preference for smooth male bodies over hairy ones is also avowed elsewhere in Roman literature (e.g., in Ode 4.10 by Horace and in some epigrams by Martial or in the Priapeia), and was likely shared by most Roman men of the time. A wealth of wall paintings of a sexual nature have been spotted in ruins of some Roman cities, notably Pompeii, where there were found the only examples known so far of Roman art depicting sexual congress between women. [13], An elaborate social code governed the mechanics of Greek pederasty. [82], The abstract noun impudicitia (adjective impudicus) was the negation of pudicitia, "sexual morality, chastity". [76], Some terms, such as exoletus, specifically refer to an adult; Romans who were socially marked as "masculine" did not confine their same-sex penetration of male prostitutes or slaves to those who were "boys" under the age of 20. Homosexuality in ancient Rome often differs markedly from the contemporary West. [204] An instance of transvestism is noted in a legal case, in which "a certain senator accustomed to wear women's evening clothes" was disposing of the garments in his will. Some social constructionists have even gone so far as to deny that sexual preference was a significant category for the ancients or that any kind of subculture based on sexual object-choice existed in the ancient world," p. 2 (he cites Halperin and Foucault in the social constructionist camp and Boswell and Thorp in the essentialist; cf. His sexuality was not defined by the gender of the person using him as a receptacle for sex, but rather his desire to be so used. Richlin, "Not before Homosexuality," p. 531. Even today, ancient female homosexuals are still too often seen in terms of a mythical, ethereal Sapphic love, or stereotyped as Amazons or courtesans. Gender did not determine whether a sexual partner was acceptable, as long as a man's enjoyment did not encroach on another man's integrity. Some men, however, insisted on ignoring this convention. Both Martial and Statius in a number of poems celebrate the freedman Earinus, a eunuch, and his devotion to the emperor Domitian. [128] The mythological type of the delicatus was represented by Ganymede, the Trojan youth abducted by Jove (Greek Zeus) to be his divine companion and cupbearer. [53], When whole objects rather than mere fragments are unearthed, homoerotic scenes are usually found to share space with pictures of opposite-sex couples, which can be interpreted to mean that heterosexuality and homosexuality (or male homosexuality, in any case) are of equal value. Changes in Discourse (From the Third to the First Century BCE), 2.4.3.1. [157], The earliest reference in Latin literature to a marriage between males occurs in the Philippics of Cicero, who insulted Mark Antony for being promiscuous in his youth until Curio "established you in a fixed and stable marriage (matrimonium), as if he had given you a stola", the traditional garment of a married woman. [97], The concubina, a female concubine who might be free, held a protected legal status under Roman law, but the concubinus did not, since he was typically a slave. [193], Other readings, unrelated to female homosexual desire, are also possible. Homosexuality in ancient Rome often differs markedly from the contemporary West. [115] To accuse a Roman man of being someone's "boy" was an insult that impugned his manhood, particularly in the political arena. When the film Alexander, which depicted Alexander as romantically involved with both men and women, was released in 2004, 25 Greek lawyers threatened to sue the film's makers,[42] but relented after attending an advance screening of the film. He plays an active role in the ceremonies, distributing the traditional nuts that boys threw (rather like rice or birdseed in the modern Western tradition). In Athens the older man was called erastes. [17], In the Imperial era, a perceived increase in passive homosexual behavior among free males was associated with anxieties about the subordination of political liberty to the emperor, and led to an increase in executions and corporal punishment. The first two are "sinning", while the last two are being "sinned against". [23], The legislator Philolaus of Corinth, lover of the stadion race winner Diocles of Corinth at the Ancient Olympic Games of 728 BC,[24] crafted laws for the Thebans in the 8th century BCE that gave special support to male unions, contributing to the development of Theban pederasty in which, unlike other places in ancient Greece, it favored the continuity of the union of male couples even after the younger man reached adulthood, the most famous example being the Sacred Band of Thebes, composed of elite soldiers in pairs of male lovers in the 4th century BCE, as was also the case with him and Diocles, who lived together in Thebes until the end of their lives.[25]. Sandra Boehringer is Associate Professor of Greek History at the University of Strasbourg, France. [110] Both puer and the feminine equivalent puella, "girl", could refer to a man's sexual partner, regardless of age. [175] Other forms of sexual gratification available to soldiers were prostitutes of any gender, male slaves, war rape, and same-sex relations. A graffito from Pompeii is unambiguous: "Secundus is a fellator of rare ability" (Secundus felator rarus). [144], Impudicitia might be associated with behaviors in young men who retained a degree of boyish attractiveness but were old enough to be expected to behave according to masculine norms. He answered their request, bringing his lover to watch. [20] There is some debate among scholars about whether pederasty was widespread in all social classes, or largely limited to the aristocracy. [186] Several emperors are reported in a negative light for surrounding themselves with men with large sexual organs.[187]. Includes initial monthly payment and selected options. The love in these poems is sometimes requited, and sometimes not. They had equal rights to men with regards to the property . [22] This stigma, however, was reserved for only the passive partner in the relationship. The portrait emerges of an ancient society to which today's sexual categories do not applya society "before sexuality"where female homosexuality looks very different, but is nonetheless. [52][54] The Warren Cup (discussed below) is an exception among homoerotic objects: it shows only male couples and may have been produced in order to celebrate a world of exclusive homosexuality. [11] In the late 20th and early 21st centuries, scholars have tended to view expressions of Roman male sexuality in terms of a "penetrator-penetrated" binary model; that is, the proper way for a Roman male to seek sexual gratification was to insert his penis into his partner. Cavanaugh, Mariah. Marius not only acquitted Trebonius in the killing of his kinsman, but gave him a crown for bravery. [197] There is only one known depiction of a woman penetrating another woman in Roman art, whereas women using dildos is common in Greek vase painting. He even gave them a headstart in the great race to get back to heaven, their mutual love refeathering their mottled wings. Traditionally, a pederastic relationship could continue until the widespread growth of the boy's body hair, when he is considered a man. [13], It was expected and socially acceptable for a freeborn Roman man to want sex with both female and male partners, as long as he took the penetrative role. Debauchery and Lust Among Roman Matrons (Juvenal. A soldier maintained his masculinity by not allowing his body to be used for sexual purposes. It derived from the unattested Greek adjective pathikos, from the verb paskhein, equivalent to the Latin deponent patior, pati, passus, "undergo, submit to, endure, suffer". Of these, only about 600 lines have survived. Female Homosexuality in Ancient Greece and Rome by Sandra Boehringer, 2021, Taylor & Francis Group edition, in English [203], A fragment from the playwright Accius (17086BC) seems to refer to a father who secretly wore "virgin's finery". [153], Various ancient sources state that the emperor Nero celebrated two public weddings with males, once taking the role of the bride (with a freedman Pythagoras), and once the groom (with Sporus); there may have been a third in which he was the bride. The portrait emerges of an ancient society to which today's sexual categories do not apply - a society 'before sexuality' - where female homosexuality looks very different, but is nonetheless very real. The most widespread and socially significant form of same-sex sexual relations in ancient Greece amongst elite circles was between adult men and pubescent or adolescent boys, known as pederasty (marriages in Ancient Greece between men and women were also age structured, with men in their thirties commonly taking wives in their early teens). [10][bettersourceneeded], The rite of passage undergone by Greek youths in the tribal prehistory of Greece evolved into the commonly known form of Greek pederasty after the rise of the city-state, or polis. As such, when Martial celebrates in two of his epigrams (1.31 and 5.48) the relationship of his friend, the centurion Aulens Pudens, with his slave Encolpos, the poet more than once gives voice to the hope that the latter's beard come late, so that the romance between the pair may last long. [100] Though adult men were expected to take on the role of "penetrator" in their love affairs, such a restriction did not apply to exoleti. Golden M. Slavery and homosexuality in Athens. [163] As a matter of law, a slave could not be raped; he was considered property and not legally a person. [68], The Warren Cup is a piece of convivial silver, usually dated to the time of the Julio-Claudian dynasty (1st century AD), that depicts two scenes of malemale sex. ${cardName} unavailable for quantities greater than ${maxQuantity}. [133] It was joked that he was marked as "Jove's chick" (pullus Iovis), since the characteristic instrument of the king of the gods was the lightning bolt[134] (see also the relation of Jove's cupbearer Ganymede to "catamite"). Manwell, "Gender and Masculinity," p. 118. [50] Out of several hundred objects depicting images of sexual contact from wall paintings and oil lamps to vessels of various types of material only a small minority exhibits acts between males, and even fewer among females. Although Roman men in general seem to have preferred youths between the ages of 12 and 20 as sexual partners, freeborn male minors were off limits at certain periods in Rome, though professional prostitutes and entertainers might remain sexually available well into adulthood. To learn how to manage your cookie settings, please see our Cookie Policy. The priests declined, but did offer him the status of divine hero. Location. Leading the charge against the Eretrians he brought the Chalcidians to victory at the cost of his own life. [7] [145] Seneca the Elder noted that "impudicitia is a crime for the freeborn, a necessity in a slave, a duty for the freedman":[146] malemale sex in Rome asserted the power of the citizen over slaves, confirming his masculinity.[147]. His counterpart, who has a more severe haircut, appears to be Roman, and thus uses a slave boy; the myrtle wreath he wears symbolizes his role as an "erotic conqueror". If you told a woman her sex had a shared, long-lived history with weasels, she might deck you. [26], In other satire, as well as in Martial's erotic and invective epigrams, at times boys' superiority over women is remarked (for example, in Juvenal 6). Within the traditions of pederasty, active/passive polarization corresponded with dominant and submissive social roles: the active (penetrative) role was associated with masculinity, higher social status, and adulthood, while the passive role was associated with femininity, lower social status, and youth. To add the following enhancements to your purchase, choose a different seller. The slave's owner, however, could prosecute the rapist for property damage. [15], Homoerotic themes are introduced to Latin literature during a period of increasing Greek influence on Roman culture in the 2nd century BC. Davidson, James. Petronius describes a man with a large penis in a public bathroom. Blanshard, "Roman Vice," in, Michael Groneberg, "Reasons for Homophobia: Three Types of Explanation," in, Christopher Records, "When Sex Has Lost its Significance: Homosexuality, Society, and Roman Law in the 4th Century", in UCR Undergraduate Research Journal, Volume IV (June 2010). The Philaenis Character: A Courtesan or a Pornographer? Except for books, Amazon will display a List Price if the product was purchased by customers on Amazon or offered by other retailers at or above the List Price in at least the past 90 days. [123] Statius goes as far as to describe this relationship as a marriage (3.4). E. Stein for a collection of essays, Forms of Desire: Sexual Orientation and the Social Constructionist Controversy, 1992). [15] However, it is important to note that not all pederastic relationships were sexual- many were simply forms of friendship and guidance. The deity's worshippers cross-dressed, men wearing women's clothes, and women men's. [46], Several other Roman writers, however, expressed a bias in favor of males when sex or companionship with males and females were compared, including Juvenal, Lucian, Strato,[47] and the poet Martial, who often derided women as sexual partners and celebrated the charms of pueri. Homer's Nestor was not well skilled in ordering an army when he advised the Greeks to rank tribe and tribehe should have joined lovers and their beloved. [78] An adult male's desire to be penetrated was considered a sickness (morbus); the desire to penetrate a handsome youth was thought normal. Now available in English for the first time, Female Homosexuality in Ancient Greece and Rome includes a preface by David Halperin. 2010. Customer Reviews, including Product Star Ratings help customers to learn more about the product and decide whether it is the right product for them.Learn more how customers reviews work on Amazon, [{"displayPrice":"$35.74","priceAmount":35.74,"currencySymbol":"$","integerValue":"35","decimalSeparator":".","fractionalValue":"74","symbolPosition":"left","hasSpace":false,"showFractionalPartIfEmpty":true,"offerListingId":"ij85Q5sr4ZTIB6xHONQ2chUrnf%2FmTmX8%2F34jh76pQOZDXM6BzKbrl3BKPSzWX1cb6BAfis0eI16cqGkBuF84y%2F0gKn1eIj38pHoNY14zEssvqGneRnM55cHuL9kCcQQQt0zwb0jsqRTcqk5hU9Wh9Q%3D%3D","locale":"en-US","buyingOptionType":"NEW"}]. It was suggested by George Devereux that this was to make the husband's transition from homosexual to heterosexual relationships easier. 562563. https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Homosexuality_in_ancient_Greece&oldid=1123956234, Short description is different from Wikidata, Articles lacking reliable references from November 2021, Articles with unsourced statements from July 2015, Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License 3.0, This page was last edited on 26 November 2022, at 16:39. In the Aeneid, Vergil who, according to a biography written by Suetonius, had a marked sexual preference for boys[38][39] draws on the Greek tradition of pederasty in a military setting by portraying the love between Nisus and Euryalus,[40] whose military valor marks them as solidly Roman men (viri). Therefore, though relationships such as this were more temporary, it had longer, lasting effects on those involved. The analysis concluded that the silverware was indeed made in classical antiquity. [99] The term denotes a male prostitute who services another sexually despite the fact that he himself is past his prime according to the ephebic tastes of Roman homoerotism. In 1734, George Frederic Handel's opera Oreste (based on Giangualberto Barlocci's Roman libretto of 1723), was premiered in London's Covent Garden. It often had a distinctly sexual or sexually demeaning connotation. Roman society was patriarchal, and the freeborn male citizen possessed political liberty (libertas) and the right to rule both himself and his household (familia). [166], The threat of one man to subject another to anal or oral rape (irrumatio) is a theme of invective poetry, most notably in Catullus's notorious Carmen 16,[167] and was a form of masculine braggadocio. The first recorded appearance of a deep emotional bond between adult men in ancient Greek culture was in the Iliad (800 BC). [43], Donnay, Catherine S., "Pederasty in ancient Greece: a view of a now forbidden institution" (2018). ${cardName} not available for the seller you chose. There they made sacrifices at the shrines of the two heroes Achilles and Patroclus; Alexander honoring Achilles, and Hephaestion honoring Patroclus. [82] The English word "passive" derives from the Latin passus. Dominic Montserrat, "Reading Gender in the Roman World," in. The wearing of the toga marked a Roman man as a free citizen. Eva Cantarella has described this form of concubinage as "a stable sexual relationship, not exclusive but privileged". [85] The cinaedus thus represented the absence of what Romans considered true manhood, and the word is virtually untranslatable into English. Now available in English for the first time, Female Homosexuality in Ancient Greece and Rome includes a preface by David Halperin. Boehringer's scholarly book replaces these clichs with rigorous, precise analysis of iconography and texts by Sappho, Plato, Ovid, Juvenal, and many other lyric poets, satirists, and astrological writers, in search of the prevailing norms, constraints, and possibilities for erotic desire. She has also co-edited several collective volumes, including. [23] The opposite view is sustained by Craig Williams, who is critical of Macmullen's discussion on Roman attitudes toward homosexuality:[24] he draws attention to the fact that Roman writers of love poetry gave their beloveds Greek pseudonyms no matter the sex of the beloved. [172] Another hypothetical case imagines the extremity to which a rape victim might be driven: the freeborn male (ingenuus) who was raped commits suicide. Even today, ancient female homosexuals are still too often seen in terms of a mythical, ethereal Sapphic love, or stereotyped as "Amazons" or courtesans. During these times, homosexuality was seen as normal and necessary due to the power dynamic at play between an older, dominant man, and a younger, submissive one. [54] With some exceptions, Greek vase painting attributes desire and pleasure only to the active partner of homosexual encounters, the erastes, while the passive, or eromenos, seems physically unaroused and, at times, emotionally distant. [182] An incident related by Plutarch in his biography of Marius illustrates the soldier's right to maintain his sexual integrity despite pressure from his superiors. These poems have been argued to demonstrate that such relationships could have an emotional dimension,[125] and it is known from inscriptions in Roman ruins that men could be buried with their delicati, which is evidence of the degree of control that masters would not relinquish, even in death, as well as of a sexual relationship in life.[126]. [84], The clothing, use of cosmetics, and mannerisms of a cinaedus marked him as effeminate,[80] but the same effeminacy that Roman men might find alluring in a puer became unattractive in the physically mature male. Informa UK Limited, an Informa Plc company. 3031, and Pamela Gordon, "The Lover's Voice in. Enhancements you chose aren't available for this seller. There was a problem loading your book clubs. [199] Imperial portrayals of women who sodomize boys, drink and eat like men, and engage in vigorous physical regimens may reflect cultural anxieties about the growing independence of Roman women.[200]. [127] The beauty of the delicatus was measured by Apollonian standards, especially in regard to his long hair, which was supposed to be wavy, fair, and scented with perfume. Greece; Lesbianism History. The Gallo-Roman poet Ausonius (4th century AD) makes a joke about a male threesome that depends on imagining the configurations of group sex: "Three men in bed together: two are sinning,[188] two are sinned against. Richlin, "Not before Homosexuality," p. 564. Pusio is etymologically related to puer, and means "boy, lad". [210] The figure was sometimes called Aphroditos. According to Dover and his supporters, Greek males who engaged in passive anal sex after reaching the age of manhood at which point they were expected to take the reverse role in pederastic relationships and become the active and dominant member thereby were feminized or "made a woman" of themselves. The book will be of value to students and scholars of ancient sexuality and gender, and to anyone interested in histories and theories of sexuality. These ancient artifacts tell the entire story in pictures. [67] Hellenization, however, influenced the depiction of male nudity in Roman art, leading to more complex signification of the male body shown nude, partially nude, or costumed in a muscle cuirass. This groundbreaking study, among the earliest syntheses on female homosexuality throughout antiquity, explores the topic with careful reference to ancient concepts and views, drawing fully on the existing visual and written record including literary, philosophical, and scientific documents. [25], References to homosexual desire or practice, in fact, also appear in Roman authors who wrote in literary styles seen as originally Roman, that is, where the influence of Greek fashions or styles is less likely. [14] Soon after, the younger man gives in to his new mentorerastesand receives guidance from him. This led to a disagreement about which to perceive as erastes and which eromenos among elites such as Aeschylus and Pausanias, since Homeric tradition made Patroclus out to be older but Achilles stronger. Williams. The modern perception of Roman sexual decadence can be traced to early Christian polemic. Richlin, "Not before Homosexuality," p. 561. It was an important element in civil life, the military, philosophy and the arts. Malemale weddings are reported by sources that mock them; the feelings of the participants are not recorded. [48] In literature of the Imperial period, the Satyricon of Petronius is so permeated with the culture of malemale sex that in 18th-century European literary circles, his name became "a byword for homosexuality". [176] The Bellum Hispaniense, about Caesar's civil war on the front in Roman Spain, mentions an officer who has a male concubine (concubinus) on campaign. Meleagers Garland: A Different Kind of Humor, Epilogue: Lucian or the Saturation of Signs. Alexander was overwhelmed by his grief for Hephaestion, so much that Arrian records that Alexander "flung himself on the body of his friend and lay there nearly all day long in tears, and refused to be parted from him until he was dragged away by force by his Companions". [149] Public baths are also referred to as a place to find sexual partners. Michael Brinkschrde, "Christian Homophobia: Four Central Discourses," in, poets writing during the reign of Augustus, Greek tradition of pederasty in a military setting, Factorum ac dictorum memorabilium libri IX, Sexuality in ancient Rome#Epicurean sexuality, "The monuments of the ancient Pompeii - SUBURBAN BATH - POMPEII", "German archaeologist suggests British Museum's Warren Cup could be forgery | Science", "Des Kinaidokolpites dans un ostracon grec du dsert oriental (gypte)", https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Homosexuality_in_ancient_Rome&oldid=1126260030. According to Roman studies scholar Craig Williams, the verses can also be read as, "a poetic soliloquy in which a woman ponders her own painful experiences with men and addresses herself in Catullan manner; the opening wish for an embrace and kisses express a backward-looking yearning for her man. Richlin, "Not before Homosexuality," p. 565, citing the same passage by Quintilian. Because in Roman culture a man who penetrates another adult male almost always expresses contempt or revenge, the pathicus might be seen as more akin to the sexual masochist in his experience of pleasure. [102] Ancient sources impute the love of, or the preference for, exoleti (using this or equivalent terms) to various figures of Roman history, such as the tribune Clodius,[103] the emperors Tiberius,[104] Galba,[105] Titus,[106] and Elagabalus,[99] besides other figures encountered in anecdotes, told by writers such as Tacitus, on more ordinary citizens. Boehringer's scholarly book replaces these clichs with rigorous, precise analysis of iconography and texts by Sappho, Plato, Ovid, Juvenal, and many other lyric poets, satirists, andastrological writers, in search of the prevailing norms, constraints, and possibilities for erotic desire. Both women and young men were considered normal objects of desire, but outside marriage a man was supposed to act on his desires with only slaves, prostitutes (who were often slaves), and the infames. Follow authors to get new release updates, plus improved recommendations. [101][bettersourceneeded] It is impossible to say how often this happened. Roman men were free to enjoy sex with other males without a perceived loss of masculinity or social status, as long as they took the dominant or penetrative role. Other works in the genre (e.g., Juvenal 2 and 9, and one of Martial's satires) also give the impression that passive homosexuality was becoming a fad increasingly popular among Roman men of the first century AD, something which is the target of invective from the authors of the satires. [5], During the Republic, a Roman citizen's political liberty (libertas) was defined in part by the right to preserve his body from physical compulsion, including both corporal punishment and sexual abuse. Women in ancient Egypt played an important role in many aspects of daily life and religion. [citation needed]. [30] The practice itself, however, was perhaps not new, as over a hundred years before these authors, the dramatist Lucius Pomponius wrote a play, Prostibulum (The Prostitute), which today only exists in fragments, where the main character, a male prostitute, proclaims that he has sex with male clients also in the active position. [137], The 4th-century Gallo-Roman poet Ausonius records the word pullipremo, "chick-squeezer", which he says was used by the early satirist Lucilius.[138]. She has also co-edited several collective volumes, including Foucault, la sexualit, lAntiquit, soon to be available in English from Routledge. [156] Although the sources are in general hostile, Dio Cassius implies that Nero's stage performances were regarded as more scandalous than his marriages to men. Stuart Hall, Room 102 Map it. A child-slave watches the scene furtively through a door ajar. Looking for Women Painters in Ancient Greece and Rome. [122], Funeral inscriptions found in the ruins of the imperial household under Augustus and Tiberius also indicate that deliciae were kept in the palace and that some slaves, male and female, worked as beauticians for these boys. The wearing of the toga may signal that prostitutes were outside the normal social and legal category of "woman". [69] It has been argued[70] that the two sides of this cup represent the duality of pederastic tradition at Rome, the Greek in contrast to the Roman. [123], The boy was sometimes castrated in an effort to preserve his youthful qualities; the emperor Nero had a puer delicatus named Sporus, whom he castrated and married. There are 0 customer reviews and 1 customer rating. We dont share your credit card details with third-party sellers, and we dont sell your information to others. 1996-2022, Amazon.com, Inc. or its affiliates. [124], Pueri delicati might be idealized in poetry and the relationship between him and his master may be painted in what his master viewed as strongly romantic colors. On one occasion, they invited a "well-endowed" young hick (rusticanus iuvenis) to their party, and took turns performing oral sex on him. However, the character of Phaedrus in Plato's Symposium asserts that Homer emphasized the beauty of Achilles, which would qualify him, not Patroclus, as eromenos.[26]. Highlight, take notes, and search in the book. In ancient Spartan weddings, the bride had her hair cropped short and was dressed as a man. [33] Some have suggested that they shared a homosexual relationship together, however historians have challenged that claim, stating instead that Hephaestion was his closest and dearest friend.[34]. [41], The subject has caused controversy in modern Greece. [211], Pliny notes that "there are even those who are born of both sexes, whom we call hermaphrodites, at one time androgyni" (andr-, "man", and gyn-, "woman", from the Greek). In 2002, a conference on Alexander the Great was stormed as a paper about his homosexuality was about to be presented. [196] Dildos are rarely mentioned in Roman sources, but were a popular comic item in Classical Greek literature and art. Pirithous had heard stories of Theseus's courage and strength in battle but wanted proof so he rustled Theseus's herd of cattle and drove it from Marathon and Theseus set out in pursuit. Thus, the use of Greek names in homoerotic Roman poems does not mean that the Romans attributed a Greek origin to their homosexual practices or that homosexual love only appeared as a subject of poetic celebration among the Romans under the influence of the Greeks. In the estimation of a modern scholar, Amy Richlin, out of the poems preserved to this day, those addressed by men to boys are as common as those addressed to women. Latin lacks words that would precisely translate "homosexual" and "heterosexual". [74] To address this issue, the British Museum, which holds the utensil, performed a chemical analysis in 2015 to determine the date of its production. Such relationships were documented by many Greek historians and in philosophical discourses, as well as in offhand remarks such as Philip II of Macedon's recorded by Plutarch demonstrates: It is not only the most warlike peoples, the Boeotians, Spartans, and Cretans, who are the most susceptible to this kind of love but also the greatest heroes of old: Meleager, Achilles, Aristomenes, Cimon, and Epaminondas. The List Price is the suggested retail price of a new product as provided by a manufacturer, supplier, or seller. [190] During the Roman Imperial era, sources for same-sex relations among women, though still rare, are more abundant, in the form of love spells, medical writing, texts on astrology and the interpretation of dreams, and other sources. [215] Apart from measures to protect the liberty of citizens, the prosecution of malemale sex as a general crime began in the 3rd century when male prostitution was banned by Philip the Arab. Latin lacks words that would precisely translate "homosexual" and "heterosexual". Although the sexual inviolability of underage male citizens is usually emphasized, this anecdote is among the evidence that even the most well-born youths might go through a phase in which they could be viewed as "sex objects". [19], Love or desire between males is a very frequent theme in Roman literature. [16] Since Roman women were active in educating their sons and mingled with men socially, and women of the governing classes often continued to advise and influence their sons and husbands in political life, homosociality was not as pervasive in Rome as it had been in Classical Athens, where it is thought to have contributed to the particulars of pederastic culture. The lexicographer Festus provides a definition and illustrates with a comic anecdote. Alastair J.L. [27], According to Ovid, Phaedra, Theseus' wife, felt left out by her husband's love for Pirithous and she used this as an excuse to try to convince her stepson, Hippolytus, to accept being her lover, as Theseus also neglected his son because he preferred to spend long periods with his companion.[28][29]. Now available in English for the first time, Female Homosexuality in Ancient Greece and Rome includes a preface by David Halperin. Homosexuality in History: A Partially Annotated Bibliography. Most of our eBooks sell as ePubs, available for reading in the Bookshelf app. His performance featured tambourine-playing and movements of the buttocks that suggested anal intercourse. It was immoral to have sex with another freeborn man's wife, his marriageable daughter, his underage son, or with the man himself; sexual use of another man's slave was subject to the owner's permission. [155] In the early 3rd century AD, the emperor Elagabalus is reported to have been the bride in a wedding to his male partner. Presenter: Patrick R. Crowley. Please try again. For the 2022 holiday season, returnable items purchased between October 11 and December 25, 2022 can be returned until January 31, 2023. Piecing together different forms of evidenceliterary, visual, and archaeologicalthis lecture explores the virtually forgotten role of women painters in the ancient Greek and Roman past. [198], Martial describes women acting sexually actively with other women as having outsized sexual appetites and performing penetrative sex on both women and boys. [49], Homosexuality appears with much less frequency in the visual art of Rome than in its literature. He might also be dominated by a woman who compels him to perform cunnilingus. [6] Though sexual relationships between adult men did exist, it is possible at least one member of each of these relationships flouted social conventions by assuming a passive sexual role according to Kenneth Dover, though this has been questioned by recent scholars. Development Studies, Environment, Social Work, Urban Studies, Informa UK Limited, an Informa Plc company, MYTH AND ARCHAIC LYRIC POETRY: HOMOEROTICISM. Richlin, "Not before Homosexuality," pp. A small profit may be earned by your clicking on or purchasing through affiliate links. The portrait emerges of an ancient society to which today's sexual categories do not apply - a society "before sexuality" - where female homosexuality looks very different, but is nonetheless very real. Later he seemed to contradict himself. Their relationship is stronger and more intimate than any of their relationships with other people. In several surviving examples of Greek and Roman sculpture, the love goddess pulls up her garments to reveal her male genitalia, a gesture that traditionally held apotropaic or magical power. Pullus was a term for a young animal, and particularly a chick. Eburnus was said to have been struck by lightning on his buttocks, perhaps a reference to a birthmark. Theseus and Pirithous are another famous pair of close adult male best friends of the same age whose strong bond has homoerotic connotations according to some ancient authors. Eros and Philia According to Aristotle: The (Excluded) Case of Two Women, 2.4.2.1. The portrait emerges of an ancient society to which today's sexual categories do not applya society "before sexuality"where female homosexuality looks very different, but is nonetheless very real. Both Martial and Juvenal refer to marriage between males as something that occurs not infrequently, although they disapprove of it. In their texts, Pomponius and Juvenal both included characters who were adult male prostitutes and had as clients male citizens who sought their services so they could take a "female" role in bed (see above). In ancient Greece, sex was generally understood in terms of penetration, pleasure, and dominance, rather than a matter of the sexes of the participants. A frieze at a brothel annexed to the Suburban Baths,[59] in Pompeii, shows a series of sixteen sex scenes, three of which display homoerotic acts: a bisexual threesome with two men and a woman, intercourse by a female couple using a strap-on, and a foursome with two men and two women participating in homosexual anal sex, heterosexual fellatio, and homosexual cunnilingus. Beert C. Verstraete and Vernon Provencal, introduction to. Indeed, Plato himself eventually came to hold this view. See also. Learn more how customers reviews work on Amazon, Routledge; 1st edition (September 7, 2021). Richlin, "Not before Homosexuality," p. 536; Williams. , soon to be available in English from Routledge. Richlin, "Not before Homosexuality," p. 547. When brought to trial, he was able to produce witnesses to show that he had repeatedly had to fend off Luscius, and "had never prostituted his body to anyone, despite offers of expensive gifts". After a long hiatus marked by censorship of homosexual themes,[38] modern historians picked up the threads, starting with Erich Bethe in 1907 and continuing with K. J. Dover and many others. [129] In the Satyricon, the tastelessly wealthy freedman Trimalchio says that as a child-slave he had been a puer delicatus serving both the master and, secretly, the mistress of the household.[130]. Shipping cost, delivery date, and order total (including tax) shown at checkout. 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