And after all, could he be certain he wasnt insane or dreaming when he saw that book or tasted that honey? The Gettier Problem. In S. Bernecker and D. Pritchard, eds., Hetherington, Stephen. On the Gettier Problem Problem. In S. Hetherington, ed.. Morton, Adam. Philosophy incorporates all systems of understanding and knowledge. Knowledge is also used to mean the confident understanding of a subject, potentially with the ability to use it for a specific purpose. Knowledge, according to the traditional definition, is belief of a special kind, belief that satisfies two necessary conditions: (1) the truth of what is believed and (2) the justification of what is believed. Few epistemologists will accept so, although developed arguments against that picture are also few. Equally, therefore, think of how improper it would be to do this if the person is not incapable of such an aim and effort such as if he or she is a cognitively capable adult. This is where opinions diverge. Engaging in philosophical thinking is . Sosa (2009) describes this as a distinction between animal knowledge and reflective knowledge; and he regards the latter as a better way of knowing a truth. In knowing, is one better as a person (all else being equal)? Perhaps there are few, if any, particular facts which one needs to know in order to exist. Knowledge is a highly valued state in which a person is in cognitive contact with reality. The difference is that philosophical knowledge does not pay attention to how and forms, that is, to beauty, but to what and the bottom line, that is, it isproposed to find the truth. (Glanzberg, 2006). Youll find partisan websites summarizing and sometimes distorting relevant scientific studies. In practical terms, you can generally figure out what you or someone else believes by examining behavior. Notice that accepting that something is true implies that what you accept could be wrong. Knowledge is clearly valuable in the sense of securing success in practical life, or at least making success more likely. Alternatively, is knowledge at least partly a conventional or artifactual kind a part of our practices of judging and evaluating, possessing a socially describable nature? The first part of this essay covers the topics of beliefs and truth and puts an emphasis on a defense of a correspondentist conception of truth, while the second part moves on to a discussion of knowledge based the thesis that knowledge is objective, and can be defined as justified true belief based on sufficient evidence. Unfortunately, this left Descartes with no where to turn. This type of priming can significantly impact how we view what is true. Any non-factive conception of knowledge allows this idea: Knowledge need not be even a true belief. Australia, (As ever throughout this article these possibilities are suggested, As was done for observational knowledge in section 3.b, this section mentions, . What is Justified Belief? In G. S. Pappas, ed.. Greenough, Patrick and Pritchard, Duncan. We are, argues Becker and others, wired towards bias. Learn how your comment data is processed. ii. Cohen, Stewart. Equally, however, the beliefs could be false because there is no physical world quite, or even at all, as the beliefs claim it to be. For the sake of simplicity I will here assume correspondentist theories to adhere to ontological realism. Suppose scientists are attempting to determine whether the planet is warming and that humans are the cause. This instance of knowing amounts, by definition, to the persons having a true and well justified belief that such-and-such is the case. If so, could that belief actually be unjustified, no matter that the groups members take it to be justified? Sellars, Wilfrid F. 1963. We can watch the event of the meeting on a video but the experience of meeting can only be had by us. (A confident although hopelessly uninformed belief as to which horse will win or even has won a particular race is not knowledge, even if the belief is true.) This does not prove that Gettiered beliefs are knowledge, of course. A bit of reflection exposes just how important having a solid view of knowledge actually is and spending some focused time thinking more deeply about knowledge can actually help us get better at knowing. Here, an argument a priori is said to be from causes to the effect and an argument a posteriori to be from effects to causes. Similar definitions were given by many later philosophers down to and including Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (16461716), and the expressions still occur sometimes with these meanings in nonphilosophical contexts. Revealed knowledge is the ultimate knowledge. (And that sort of question will arise about all evidence and all knowledge. [Incidentally: while JTB is generally considered a starting point for a definition, it by no means is the final word. Observation is occurring; and you do not consciously construct the knowledge. Perhaps you can now see why beliefs are different than truth statements. *You can also browse our support articles here >. Personal knowledge relates to firsthand experience, idiosyncratic preferences, and. Normally it would not be; abnormally, however, could it be? Coming up with a definition of knowledge has proven difficult but well take a look at a few attempts and examine the challenges we face in doing so. However, there are many beliefs that are false, despite being backed by some evidence. You and I may have very different beliefs about economics and our beliefs might be justified in very different ways. And I know that you are sitting down. The knowledge being attributed is not being thought to involve infallibility. Even so, justification is a critical element in any theory of knowledge and is the focus of many a philosophical thought. 2003. 1979. (Still, in practice we also often could have infallibilist moments: Youre not sure? There are some philosophersnotably postmodernists and existentialistswho think such a distinction cant be made which well examine more below. Further, a claim is only called a belief when its holder is certain of it; this means that hope and faith can be excluded from this definition of belief (Creel, 2001). To export a reference to this article please select a referencing stye below: If you are the original writer of this essay and no longer wish to have your work published on UKEssays.com then please: Our academic writing and marking services can help you! Naturally, it could be difficult to ascertain that any particular knowledge is genuinely innate. We also use third-party cookies that help us analyze and understand how you use this website. Is Smiths belief true? After Plato, Ancient Greek skeptics proposed that there is no surefire way to justify a belief. Plato maintained in his dialogues Meno and Phaedo that the learning of geometrical truths involved the recollection of knowledge possessed by the soul in a disembodied existence before its possessors birth, when it could contemplate the eternal Forms directly. Goldman, Alvin I. At the very least, he found he couldnt have the certainty that many of his educators had. It could depend on what is being known innately the subject matter of this knowledge with which the person has been born. We're here to answer any questions you have about our services. On today's episode.CATS. It doesn't have to be this way. Such a thought is mistaken, though, even if we regard contextualism as indirectly a theory of knowing. (What does the justification do in such a case? Procedural knowledge clearly differs from propositional knowledge. To say the least, not everyone knows everything, not even everything that in principle is knowable. These could be more, or they could be less, narrowly characterised. Individual instances of knowledge come to individual people at individual times, remaining in place for varying individual lengths of time. The key question is that of whether a group could be not only mistaken in a shared belief, but even unreliable in how they form and try to support it. Its four volumes cover the entire scope of Western epistemology, from the ancient world through the medieval and modern periods to the contemporary scene, with essays on the most influential figures in each of these periods. In order to doubt it, he would have to think. Let us begin by considering whether there are different kinds of knowledge. A common technical definition of a proposition (credited to Peter van Inwagen) is "a non-linguistic bearer of truth value." A proposition is a representation of the world or a way the world could possibly be and propositions are either true or false. If you never know that your apparent experiences of the physical world around you are not present as part of your dreaming while asleep, you never know that what feels to you like a normally produced belief about the world is not present as part of an experience which precludes that you are thereby having a belief at this time which is knowledge. This paper is thus an argumentative paper, striving to defend the opinion of the author by engaging in a philosophical discussion. Locke's epistemology was an attempt to understand the operations of human understanding, Kant's epistemology was an attempt to understand the conditions of the possibility of human understanding, and Russell's epistemology was an attempt to understand how modern science could be justified by appeal to sensory experience. The need to be fallibilist in assessing the knowledges absence. The Denial of Death, pp. While both cases have varying certainty and varying likeliness to be true, we do not explicitly distinguish to what extent the belief is certain, backed by evidence or whether it is actually true. We speak of belief when a young child strongly believes in Sinterklaas, just as we speak of belief when a person vaguely believes that she will receive a fine when parking her car in central Maastricht without a parking ticket. From simple essay plans, through to full dissertations, you can guarantee we have a service perfectly matched to your needs. This cookie is set by GDPR Cookie Consent plugin. The answer to that question might be that there is only knowledge-how present without owing its existence to some related prior knowledge-that. (Knowledge is only of truths or facts: see section 6.f.). That depends. Knowledge is a belief; but not just any belief. Can there be foundational observational knowledge? Hence, the question is one of whether that combination the fallibility and the oddity should be allowed by fallibilism as being knowledge nonetheless. The idea of improving ones evidence, or ones reliability in attaining true beliefs, is perfectly compatible with already having good support for a particular belief. ), [For a range of readings on observational knowledge, see Dancy 1988.]. To think without observing might not be to improve dramatically, if at all, the use of ones mind. And it is often thought to accommodate the existence of different standards for knowledge-attributions. ), Reliability. Fallibilism. In S. Bernecker and D. Pritchard, eds., Dougherty, Trent and Rysiew, Patrick. The latter amounts to the certaintys being a rationally inviolable and unimprovable form of justificatory support, regardless of whether it feels so perfect. We'll look at a standard approach to defining knowledge and how postmodernists treat the problem of knowledge. Suppose also that I have not studied economics all that much but I do know that Id like more money in my pocket. Yet that sort of reaction has begun to be questioned by some work that initiated what has since become known as experimental philosophy. In practice, philosophers do not treat that as a question about the ineliminable specificities of each person, each moment, and each particular piece of knowledge. And in general a belief is formed unsafely if it is formed by overlooking facts that make the belief true. So (continues this interpretation), if the presence of a fallibilist standard was the only shortcoming in the case, we should not dismiss the belief as failing to be knowledge; for that would be simply an infallibilist dismissal of the belief. The science is uncovering that, in many cases, the process of forming the belief went wrong somewhere and our minds have actually tricked us into believing its true. You might go further and claim that denying it would be crazy. Anyone who accepts infallibilism about some or all knowledge must confront the question of whether he or she wants thereby to deny that any such knowledge is ever actually attained. [For debate on this, see Pritchard 2012 and Hetherington 2012.]. One of his arguments is that we as humans build an ego ( in the Freudian sense; what he calls character armor) out of the beliefs we hold and those beliefs tend to give us meaning and they are strengthened when more people hold the same viewpoint. Similarly, think of hearing expert testimony and then more of it, by even better experts in support of a thesis. The word explicitly is used here because one would know while acknowledging those alternatives. Notice that as soon as a postmodernist makes a claim about the truth and knowledge they seem to be making a truth statement! In "Knowledge, Context, and the Agent's Point of View," Timothy Williamson provides a careful exposition of epistemic contextualism, indicating some of its strengths. We should consider two possible answers to this question. Presumably, therefore, your feeling or experience at this time is not providing you with knowledge right now of the cats presence. This suggestion, although vague, is substantive enough to imply that if one was to know nothing then to a correlative extent (however far that extent reaches) one would not be alive in a valuable way. As the preceding two paragraphs show, competing interpretive possibilities exist here. If a person would have rated their overall happiness as very happy when asked questions about general happiness only, they might rate their overall happiness as somewhat happy if they were asked questions about their romantic happiness just prior and their romantic happiness was more negative than positive. Can there be purely or directly observational knowledge? After all, those circumstances now include the details constituting that final beliefs being true the details of how it is true, details about Smith himself. Gilbert Ryle (1971 [1946]; 1949) made apparent to other philosophers the potential importance of distinguishing knowledge-that from knowledge-how. Philosophical knowledge cannot be understood without being located in a specific historical and social moment. After all, fallibility is merely an absence of infallibility; and there might be many possible standards available to be met, each of which would fall short to some or another extent of the absolute achievement constituted by infallibility. A lower and more accommodating standard for applying the term knows to you is presumed within the everyday context; not so in the sceptically-aware context. (Why is that so? For example, an intellectual virtue may involve a cognitive faculty that is intellectually reliable (this phenomenon was mentioned in section 5.a); or, less narrowly, an intellectual virtue can reflect more of ones being generally solicitous and respectful towards truth. The short answer Philosophy is a way of thinking about certain subjects such as ethics, thought, existence, time, meaning and value. Analytical cookies are used to understand how visitors interact with the website. In each of these theories the possibility of a priori knowledge is explained by a suggestion that there exists a privileged opportunity for studying the subject matter of such knowledge. naturalism, in philosophy, a theory that relates scientific method to philosophy by affirming that all beings and events in the universe (whatever their inherent character may be) are natural. So at least on the surface, it seems you know things that dont have broad agreement by others. Revealed Knowledge The knowledge is based upon Revelation from a supernatural being. How would the person, or indeed anyone else, know that he or she has this innate knowledge? Philosophys history of reflection upon knowledge is a history of theses and theories; but no less of questions, concepts, distinctions, syntheses, and taxonomies. Not totalitarian. Some such social groupings are also professional groupings (for example, of physicists, of physicians, of high school teachers, of carpenters, and so forth). Do you need also to walk around it, still looking at it, scrutinising it from different angles, if you are to know that you are seeing a cat? Lets suppose youre not intoxicated, high, or in some other way in your right mind and conclude that you know youre reading an article on the internet. Perhaps that is all there is to knowing. Advertisement cookies are used to provide visitors with relevant ads and marketing campaigns. Its our access to it that may differ widely. Such doubts, if correct, could allow philosophers to return to a view a pre-Gettier view of knowledge as being some sort of justified true belief. in matters of immortality everyone has the same self-righteous conviction. Perhaps even a much wider range of actions is apt only when they are expressing or reflecting knowledge. (Even if it is always a belief or something related, truth is not essential for knowing.). 5) famously distinguished between knowledge by description and a quite particular kind of knowledge by acquaintance. I wonder whether Ill ever meet her whether I will ever actually know her. Without that meeting, you could well know facts about the person (this being a kind of knowledge to be discussed in section 1.b). . Philosopher Rene Descartes (pronounced day-cart) was one of them. We make knowledge decisions all day, every day and some of those decisions deeply impact our lives and the lives of those around us. These problems and many others are what intrigue philosophers and are what make coming up with a definition of knowledge challenging. Suppose you are experiencing a pain in your arm. Whats Epistemology For? Empiricists believe that all knowledge is based on experience. For example, what would you claim to know that you would also say you are certain of? More generally, therefore, maybe one could have a belief while also accepting ones not quite being able to know that one has not gained it in a way which is wholly unsuitable for its being knowledge. Here are some of them (collectively referred to as knowledge-wh): knowing whether it is 2 p.m.; knowing who is due to visit; knowing why a visit is needed; knowing what the visit is meant to accomplish; knowing how that outcome is best accomplished; and so forth. Some treat metaphysics as the study of "higher" reality or the "invisible" nature behind everything, but instead, it's the study of all of reality, visible and invisible. But imagine existing while knowing nothing. And do we create knowers likewise, when interpreting people as knowers? Without knowing, possibly ones living lacks part of its possible point regardless of how, more specifically and fully, we describe that point. 2012. Our editors will review what youve submitted and determine whether to revise the article. (As ever throughout this article these possibilities are suggested for continued consideration, not as manifestly decisive refutations.). The discipline, epistemology, comes from two Greek words episteme () which means knowledge and logos () which means a word or reason. Experimental philosophy (x-phi) is all the rage. For most of us these are pretty stable items but Descartes found that it was rather easy to doubt their truth. The reason philosophers write truth statements this way is to give sense to the idea that a statement about the world could be wrong or, more accurately, false (philosophers refer to the part in quotes as a statement or proposition). Still, not everyone will assess these examples in quite that way. Aesthetics Philosophy. epistemology, the philosophical study of the nature, origin, and limits of human knowledge. This is because the belief, by being true, would be knowledge anyway, irrespectively of whether there was also justification supporting the truth of the belief. Well look at how prominent philosophers have wrestled with the topic and how postmodernists provide a different viewpoint on the problem of knowledge. It is the study of meaning, of the principles underlying conduct, thought and knowledge. Mere sincere feeling. There is a more general question behind those ones: What standard must observational knowledge meet? One day, he decided to tackle the problem. The pain is very strong and intense. Looking back on a long and prolific tradition, philosophy offers a considerable variety of approaches to defining knowledge. The Righteous Mind: Why Good People Are Divided by Politics and Religion (p. 104). Some or all knowledge is non-observational, attained by thought alone. Justification is not merely the application of a philosophical formula. A true belief is safely formed just in case, given how it has been formed and given the surrounding circumstances in which it has been formed, it would have been formed only if true. Philosophical knowledge or philosophical knowledge is called the series of conclusions to which the human being is able to arrive by means of the application of the reflective, critical and deductive methods of the philosophy , that is to say, the knowledge that is possible to reach by means of the philosophical reasoning. We can best answer that potentially complex question in several stages. Study for free with our range of university lectures! If it is, perhaps knowing is incompatible with possibly being mistaken; in which case, knowledge does have to involve an epistemic certainty. Epistemology Naturalized. In W. V. Quine. For example, knowing whether it is 2 p.m. is knowing that it is 2 p.m., if it is; and knowing that it is not 2 p.m., if it is not. As civilizations expand and mutate, could knowing change not only its content (that is, what is known), but its basic nature (for example, how the knowing occurs and even what in general is required for it to occur)? Are they not simply another form of knowledge-that? Free Press.). Philosophical knowledgeis the accumulated set of existential, reflexive and contemplative knowledgethat humanity has been formulating throughout itshistory, from ancient to contemporary civilizations. The story of Descartes is meant to illustrate the depth of the problems of epistemology and how difficult and rare certainty is, if certainty is possiblethere are plenty of philosophers who think either that Descartes project failed or that he created a whole new set of problems that are even more intractable than the one he set out to solve. Or do we also think only imperfectly? In ordinary life, no one finds it puzzling that one can acquire knowledge by looking, feeling, or listening. Recently, their denial has tended to take the form of specifying that knowledge has to be safe a condition failed, we are then told, by those beliefs found within Gettier cases: Safety. Descartes was looking for certainty and if there is even a slim possibility that hes being deceived, he had to throw out mathematics too. Yes, it does. The usual interpretation might say that Smiths surrounding circumstances include the facts that he himself will get the job and that he himself has ten coins in his pocket facts of which Smith is ignorant. to have all of the relevant propositional knowledge) without actually knowing how to drive a car (i.e. To some, philosophy's goal is a systematic worldview. Or consider another possible example: knowledge of some mathematics and some logical principles. Zagzebski claims that knowledge is a 'highly valued state in which a person is in cognitive contact with reality'. Philosophical knowledge is a child of its time and lives and dies with it . 1991. If there could be a priori knowledge, is it clear what standard it would need to have satisfied? Today we know that people try so hard to win converts for their point of view because it is more than merely an outlook on life: it is an immortality formula. He reasoned that its not possible to doubt something without thinking about the fact that youre doubting. But (as section 1.d acknowledged) such manifestations of knowledge-how might actually reflect the presence within of knowledge-that. Some of these claims could be knowledge. Mere socially justified belief. What are Newtons laws of motion And Their Examples? Might that be how knowledge is? For example, it would be natural to say that in Gettiers own first case (section 5.b above), Smith forms his belief that the person who will get the job has ten coins in his pocket by listening to the company president and by counting coins in Joness pocket. Here, there is often an explicit preference for the life of reason and rational thought. On sceptical reasoning in general, see DeRose and Warfield 1999.]. Oxygen theory might be supplanted some day as well but that doesnt make it any less true today. The first recorded occurrence of the phrases is in the writings of the 14th-century logician Albert of Saxony. We just claim to know stuff and most of us, I suspect, are pretty comfortable with that. It stands in contrast to rationalism, according to which reason is the ultimate source of knowledge. This implies that there is a distinction between belief and truth. The field of study already is large and growing so I can only provide a thumbnail sketch of the influence of how belief formation is influenced by our mind and other factors. We should not forget the possibility of knowings failing to have a point or value in itself. In practice, we are fallibilists in that respect. Knowing how that outcome is best accomplished is knowing, for some specified description of how that outcome could be accomplished, that this describes the best way of accomplishing that outcome. In this website, we present a rough synthesis of some new and some old ideas from the philosophy of science. Philosophy is an activity of thought. You might notice that the description above puts the focus of knowing on the individual. Thus, we will examine some of the general kinds or forms of knowledge that epistemologists have thought it important to highlight (section 1), followed by the idea of knowledge as a kind or phenomenon at all (section 2). Is that part of why humans as a natural kind (if this is what we are) have prospered so markedly? That question confronts us with a radical sceptical possibility. One historically popular definition of 'knowledge' is the 'JTB' theory of knowledge: knowledge is justified, true belief. In particular, some epistemologists (for example, Prichard 2005) will insist that a moral to be learnt from the Gettier problem (section 5.b above) is that (fallible) knowledge is never present when some kinds of luck are involved in the presence of that true belief, given that justification. Knowledge tends to be more concrete. Knowledge is information of which someone is aware. Ernest Becker in his important Pulitzer Prize winning book The Denial of Death attempts to get at the psychology behind why we form the beliefs we do. 2.7) on others who have accepted it. Certainty its hard if not impossible to deny, Practicality it has to actually work in the real world, Broad agreement lots of people have to agree its true, a product of wishful thinking (I really wish you would love me so I believe you love me), a product of fear or guilt (youre terrified of death and so form the belief in an afterlife), formed in the wrong way (you travel to an area you know nothing about, see a white spot 500 yards away and conclude its a sheep), a product of dumb luck or guesswork (you randomly form the belief that the next person you meet will have hazel eyes and it turns out that the next person you meet has hazel eyes). [For instances of this way of thinking, see Zagzebski 1996; Sosa 2007; Greco 2010. Then the sceptical conclusion follows swiftly. (Haidt, pp. Note a variation on this theme that is currently being developed. Rarely, if ever (is the usual reply). A statement is considered true if it describes the way things actually are (Russell, 1956). You may know which pedal is the accelerator and which is the brake. Notice that the criteria for truth is that scientists agree. Our academic experts are ready and waiting to assist with any writing project you may have. Since its hard to nail down a definition, it also makes it hard to answer the question what do you know?. In principle, each kind of knowledge can be fallible (although an infallibilist, such as Sosa himself, can also accept the distinction). If he was thinking then he must be a thinking thing and so he found that it was impossible to doubt that he was a thinking being. Here is an alternative possible fallibilist interpretation of Gettiers case about the job and the coins. The question concerns whatever value knowing has for a person, even if he or she does not realise that the value is present. Abstract. On scepticism and dreaming, see Sosa (2007: ch. Since its not possible to stand outside our minds, all the parts that make up our minds influence our view on what is true. Must such justification be it favourable evidence or be it reliability in belief-formation be perfect support for or towards the beliefs being true? Wisdom is the ability to make correct judgments and decisions. Let us know if you have suggestions to improve this article (requires login). And that question was not meant merely to ask whether sometimes we are mistaken in claiming a particular piece of knowledge. Wilfrid Sellars (1963) engaged famously with this question, confronting what he called the myth of the given. The thinking behind it took this form: Consider someones knowing that such-and-such is the case. So (on this alternative interpretation), Smiths final belief is not formed unsafely. The Main . Gettier, Edmund L. 1963. You might be justified in believing that the sun is roughly 93 million miles from the earth much differently than you would be justified in believing God exists or that you have a minor back pain. ], A normative standard for assertions and other actions. Well most of us arent like Descartes. In reacting to Gettiers own two cases and to the many similar ones that have since appeared, epistemologists have continually relied on its being intuitively clear that the cases featured beliefs are not instances of knowledge. [On the nature of fallibilism, see Hetherington (2005) and Dougherty (2011).]. Less-than-optimism? On the other hand, if you know something for sure, it would be difficult to change how you think about it. Optimism replies, Yes. These instances of people learning so readily and predictably would be actions expressing some knowledge-how. We talk of knowledge: all of us do; philosophers do. If not in written by the novelist to tell us its time, most. Both are closely related, and both have been challenged 1963 by Edmund Gettier. And so that final belief is not knowledge. Accordingly, for all that you do know about yourself at that time, you fail to have knowledge of your surroundings. If some instances of knowledge accompany a person into life, how will they reveal themselves within his or her life? Necessary cookies are absolutely essential for the website to function properly. Required fields are marked *. The cookie is set by GDPR cookie consent to record the user consent for the cookies in the category "Functional". Yes, it is; but only because he himself will get the job and because he himself has ten coins in his pocket two facts of which he is actually unaware. There are dozens of competing theories of justification. The belief would already be knowledge, with there being good enough justificatory support for it. You may have more evidence or different experiences than I have and so you may believe things I dont or may have evidence for something that I dont have. Furthermore, knowledge is, or may be, an abstract entity that is shared by many persons; jna is always individual and belongs to a single person. Philosophers often divide knowledge up into three broad domains: personal, procedural, and propositional. On the other hand, pragmatism does not allow us to make predictions of the future, since it reduces the definition of truth to beliefs of the past that have been confirmed by their outcome. And (as section 1.d also acknowledged) even when an action, such as of language-learning, is manifesting knowledge-how, there remains a philosophical question as to whether that action is reflecting knowledge-that already existing within, dormant until activated. Consequently, all knowledge of the universe falls within the pale of scientific investigation. Thus, we may open up for ourselves a world of knowledge beyond what is revealed by our immediate experiences. ], Reliable informants. What a philosopher provides is a body of philosophic thought NOT a Philosophy. But none of those theories are favored here, So far, the discussion has been about fallibility, not different. We also look at how belief and what one believes relates to what one knows. It can constitute knowledge, but the evidence on which it is based could too weak to conclude that true, evidence based beliefs are knowledge (Creel). 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