An abortive first attempt to export ice to England had occurred in 1822 under William Leftwich; he had imported ice from Norway, but his cargo had melted before reaching London. Equipment and Parts +. In New England, holes were drilled in the ice to promote the thickening of the surface. [202], The size of the ice houses made it difficult to load ice into them; in 1827 Wyeth invented a lever and horse-drawn pulley system to raise blocks of ice through the roofs of the warehouses. [123], The Norwegian trade peaked during the 1890s, with a million tons (900 million kg) of ice being exported from Norway by 1900; the major Leftwich company in Britain, importing much of this, kept a thousand tons (900,000kg) of ice in store at all times to meet demand. Armour, pp. [209] The city of New York was unusual and did not build ice depots near the ports, instead using the incoming barges and, on occasion, ships that were delivering the ice as floating warehouses until the ice was needed. [122] Unfortunately for investors, the following summer was quite cool, suppressing demand for stocks, and many businessmen were ruined. The trade was started by the New England businessman Frederic Tudor in 1806. JPMorgan Chase has reached a milestone five years in the making the bank says it is now routing all inquiries from third-party apps and services to access customer data through its secure application programming interface instead of allowing these services to collect data through screen scraping. Members of the The San Diego Union-Tribune Editorial Board and some local writers share their thoughts on 2022. In 2018, Caterpillar was ranked number 65 on the Fortune 500 list and number 238 on the Global Fortune 500 list. [157] Low-lying, boggy land was dammed and flooded in Maine towards the end of the century to meet surge demands, while pre-existing artificial mill ponds in Wisconsin turned out to be ideal for harvesting commercial ice. CBN is non-intoxicating, and while research into this compound is relatively new, there are indications CBN has properties that make it perfect for sleep formulas. Exports from New England to India peaked in 1856, when 146,000 tons (132 million kg) were shipped, and the Indian natural ice market faltered during the Indian Rebellion of 1857, dipped again during the American Civil War, and imports of ice slowly declined through the 1860s. [127] In turn Morse bought out his major competitor, the Knickerbocker Ice Company of New York, in 1896, giving him control of around four million tons (four billion kg) of the regional ice harvests each year. [233] This improved ventilation was essential to avoid warm air building up in the car and causing damage to the goods. [212] Household refrigerators were manufactured in the 1840s on the east coast, most notably by Darius Eddy of Massachusetts and Winship of Boston; many of these were shipped west. Trafiguras shareholders and top traders to split $1.7bn in payouts ; Council reviewed 202mn loan to THG but lent to ecommerce groups founder instead [203] Later improvements to loading included the use of lift systems to raise the blocks of ice to the top of the building, first using horse power, then steam power; the largest warehouses later introduced conveyor belt systems to bring the ice into storage. Constitutional Rights Foundation (CRF) is a non-profit, non-partisan, community-based organization. [190] In 1842 a new railroad to Fitchburg was used to access the ice at Walden Pond. New York [April 8, 2022] Hit HGTV series Home Town starring home renovation experts Ben and Erin Napier who balance a busy family life while they revitalize their small town of Laurel, Mississippi, has attracted more than 23 million viewers [191] By the 1880s ice was being shipped by rail across the North American continent. Networks of ice wagons were typically used to distribute the product to the final domestic and smaller commercial customers. [23] Trade to Charleston and to Savannah in Georgia followed, while Tudor's competitors began to supply South Carolina and Georgia by ship from New York or using barges sent downstream from Kentucky. [111] The long-distance transportation companies continued to use cheap natural ice for the bulk of their refrigeration needs, but they now used purchased local plant ice at key points across the US, to allow for surge demand and to avoid the need to hold reserve stocks of natural ice. 142143. 125126; Blain, pp. 20 C (4 F) would be a typical winter day temperature and 18 C (64 F) an average summer day, but the long, cold winter is the dominant feature. A Microsoft 365 subscription offers an ad-free interface, custom domains, enhanced security options, the full desktop version of Sales were hampered, however, by the lack of local storage facilities, both for Tudor's stock and any ice bought by domestic customers, and as a result the ice stocks quickly melted away. [126] Charles W. Morse was a businessman from Maine who by 1890 had used questionable financial processes to acquire control of the New York City Ice Company and the Consumers' Ice Company of New York, merging them into the Consolidated Ice Company. [55] Eastern U.S. fishermen began to use ice to preserve their catches. Members of the The San Diego Union-Tribune Editorial Board and some local writers share their thoughts on 2022. By the 1870s hundreds of men were employed to cut ice from the glaciers at Grindelwald in Switzerland, and Paris in France began to import ice from the rest of Europe in 1869. [72] The resulting product was variously called plant or artificial ice, but there were numerous obstacles to manufacturing it commercially. Find latest news from every corner of the globe at Reuters.com, your online source for breaking international news coverage. [89], In supplying this demand, the ice trade increasingly shifted north, away from Massachusetts and towards Maine. [98] The Kennebec, along with the Penboscot and Sheepscot, was widely opened up for the ice industry, becoming an important source, particularly in warm winters, for the rest of the 19th century. [79], The international ice trade continued through the second half of the 19th century, but it increasingly moved away from its former, New England roots. Get the latest NFL news, NFL rumors, podcasts, free agency updates, trade grades, pedictions, columns, analysis, and more from FanSided. Continuous Flow Centrifuge Market Size, Share, 2022 Movements By Key Findings, Covid-19 Impact Analysis, Progression Status, Revenue Expectation To 2028 Research Report - 1 min ago [198] His early ice houses in Cuba had inner and outer timber walls, insulated with peat and sawdust, with some form of a ventilation system, and these formed the basic design for ice houses during the rest of the century. Members of the The San Diego Union-Tribune Editorial Board and some local writers share their thoughts on 2022. Heres how new water cannons could help fight wildfires year-round [102] A chain of icing stations at Chicago, Omaha, Utah and Sierra Nevada allowed railroad refrigerator cars to cross the continent. [156], Purely natural sources were insufficient in some areas and additional steps taken to increase supplies. Caterpillar Inc. (stock symbol CAT) is an American Fortune 500 corporation and the world's largest construction-equipment manufacturer. [185] Charlie Morse introduced larger, seagoing ice barges in the 1890s in order to supply New York; these were pulled by schooners and could each carry up to 3,000 tons (three million kg) of ice. [154] Natural ice could occur with different qualities; most prized was hard, clear crystal ice, typically consumed at the table; more porous, white-coloured ice was less valuable and used by industry. This climate is classified as Dfc, Dwc, Dsc, Dfd and Dwd in the Kppen climate classification scheme, meaning that the short summers (24 h average 10 [94] Carr ice machines were brought into New Orleans to make up the shortfall in the South, focusing in particular on supplying Southern hospitals. 910; Stevens, p. 290; Ouren, p. 32. [217] Drinks such as sherry-cobblers and mint juleps were created that could only be made using crushed ice. [187] Ice was the only profitable alternative to rocks and, as a result, the ice trade from New England could negotiate lower shipping rates than would have been possible from other international locations. [69] Fruit began to be stored in central Illinois using refrigerators, for consumption in later seasons. [12] Ice needed to be at least 18inches (0.46 m) thick to be harvested, as it needed to support the weight of the workers and horses and be suitable for cutting into large blocks. [32] He agreed to supply Tudor from Fresh Pond in Cambridge, Massachusetts, reducing the cost of harvesting ice from 30 cents ($7.30) a ton (901kg) to only 10 cents ($2.40). Get the latest local Detroit and Michigan breaking news and analysis , sports and scores, photos, video and more from The Detroit News. 31, 37; Herold, p. 166; Weightman, pp. [132] Plant ice production in New York doubled between 1900 and 1910 and, by 1914, 26 million tons (23 billion kg) of plant ice was being produced in the U.S. each year in comparison to the 24 million tons (22 billion kg) of naturally harvested ice. [68] Cincinnati and Chicago began to use ice to help the packing of pork in the summer; John L. Schooley developing the first refrigerated packing room. News on Japan, Business News, Opinion, Sports, Entertainment and More 56, 6667; Cummings, pp. Stay on top of the news all day with the Tribunes web notifications. Get the latest news and analysis in the stock market today, including national and world stock market news, business news, financial news and more [96] By the late 1870s, however, efficiency improvements were allowing them to squeeze natural ice out of the marketplace in the South. [219], The large-scale production of ice cream also resulted from the ice trade. [9] There were production sites at Hugli-Chuchura and Allahabad, but this "hoogly ice" was only available in limited amounts and considered of poor quality because it often resembled soft slush rather than hard crystals. About 8% of these are Brick Making Machinery, 26% are Concrete Cutter, and 6% are Asphalt Mixers. [227] By the 1840s, improved supplies and an understanding of the importance of circulating air was making a significant improvement to refrigeration in the U.S.[230], With the development of the U.S. railroad system, natural ice became used to transport larger quantities of goods much longer distances through the invention of the refrigerator car. [70] By the 1860s, ice was being used to allow the brewing of the increasingly popular lager beer all year round. Heres how new water cannons could help fight wildfires year-round [225], The ice trade revolutionised the way that food was preserved and transported. Indeed, ice exports from the US peaked around 1870, when 65,802 tons (59,288,000kg), worth $267,702 ($4,610,000 in 2010 terms), were shipped out from the ports. [62], In 1850, California was in the midst of a gold rush; backed by this sudden demand for luxuries, New England companies made the first shipments, by ship to San Francisco and Sacramento, in California, including a shipment of refrigerated apples. Chicago, St Paul and Fond du Lac Railroad, At New Hampshire family camp, iceboxes preserve, among other things, tradition, "Melting Markets: The Rise and Decline of the Anglo-Norwegian Ice Trade, 18501920", "Hudson River Valley Icehouses and Ice Industry", "Ice in the Tropics: The Export of 'Crystal Blocks of Yankee Coldness' to India and Brazil", https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ice_trade&oldid=1121394648, Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License 3.0, This page was last edited on 12 November 2022, at 02:07. [153] In New England, ponds and rivers typically had deep enough ice to harvest between January and March, while in Norway harvesting occurred between December and February. 2022 tpm media llc. [35] The Anglo-Indian elite, concerned about the effects of the summer heat, quickly agreed to exempt the imports from the usual East India Company regulations and trade tariffs, and the initial net shipment of around a hundred tons (90,000kg) sold successfully. [176] The ice was typically packed up tightly with sawdust, and the hold was then closed to prevent warmer air entering; other forms of protective dunnage used to protect ice included hay and pine tree cuttings. CRF seeks to instill in our nation's youth a deeper understanding of citizenship through values expressed in our Constitution and its Bill of Rights and to educate young people to become active and responsible participants in our society. [104], During the 1870s ice began to be used by Timothy Eastman, of the Bell Brothers firm, to transport American meat to Britain; the first shipment successfully arrived in 1875 and by the following year 9,888 tons (8,909,000kg) of meat was shipped. Explore legal resources, campaign finance data, help for candidates and committees, and more. B Sutherland, John Bate and William Davis all patented improved refrigerator cars, which used stacks of ice placed at either end and improved air circulation to keep their contents cool. [21] Learning from this experience, Tudor then built a functioning ice depot in Havana and, despite the U.S. trade embargo declared in 1807, was trading successfully again by 1810. . Dickason, pp. [113], Despite this emerging competition, natural ice remained vital to North American and European economies, with demand driven up by rising living standards. This climate is classified as Dfc, Dwc, Dsc, Dfd and Dwd in the Kppen climate classification scheme, meaning that the short summers (24 h average 10 [149] The natural ice harvests shrunk dramatically, and ice warehouses were abandoned or converted for other uses. [44] This trade was to prove less regular, and the next shipments arrived in the 1840s. [196] In Britain, ice was rarely sold to domestic customers via specialist dealers during the 19th century, instead usually being sold through fishmongers, butchers and chemists, who kept ice on their premises for their own commercial use. [60], The 1850s was a period of transition for the ice trade. [130] In contrast, the competition in the British market remained harsh, keeping prices relatively low. [238] By the middle of the 19th century, the British Royal Navy was using imported ice to cool the interiors of its ships' gun turrets. [179] By the end of the 19th century, the preferred choice was a wooden-hulled vessel, to avoid rust corrosion from the melting ice, while windmill pumps were installed to remove the excess water from the hull using bilge pumps. Expand your Outlook. [64] The American-Russian Commercial Company was subsequently formed in San Francisco in 1853 to work in partnership with the Russian-American Company of Alaska to supply ice to the west coast of America. Join the discussion about your favorite team! Best Prices with Custom Bulk Quotes. [148] Industry turned entirely to plant ice and mechanical cooling systems, and the introduction of cheap electric motors resulted in domestic, modern refrigerators becoming common in U.S. homes by the 1930s and more widely across Europe in the 1950s, allowing ice to be made in the home. WNBA star Brittney Griner was released from Russian detention in a prisoner swap for convicted Russian arms dealer Viktor Bout. Big Blue Interactive's Corner Forum is one of the premiere New York Giants fan-run message boards. [52][c], The east coast of the U.S. also began to consume more ice, particularly as more industrial and private customers found uses for refrigeration. Constitutional Rights Foundation (CRF) is a non-profit, non-partisan, community-based organization. The citizens of New York City and Philadelphia became huge consumers of ice during their long, hot summers, and additional ice was harvested from the Hudson River and Maine to fulfill the demand. CNN's Kylie Atwood reports on video of her flight returning to the US. [110] In the U.S., plants began to become more numerous in the southern states. [26] Tudor, relying on his local storage depots, could then increase his prices once again. [218] Some Hindus in India regarded ice as unclean for religious reasons, and as such an inappropriate food. In the early stages of the ice trade there was also a tension between preserving the limited supply of ice, by limiting the flow of air over it, and preserving the food, which depended on circulating more air over the ice to create colder temperatures. about tips. Find what you need to know about the federal campaign finance process. [17], Tudor's plan was to export ice as a luxury good to wealthy members of West Indies and the southern US states, where he hoped they would relish the product during their sweltering summers; conscious of the risk that others might follow suit, Tudor hoped to acquire local monopoly rights in his new markets in order to maintain high prices and profits. Increasingly, however, the ice trade began to focus on supplying the growing cities on the east coast of the U.S. and the needs of businesses across the Midwest. [105] The chilled meat was retailed through special warehouses and stores. Taiga has a subarctic climate with very large temperature range between seasons. [86] Ice cargoes tended to cause damage to ships in the longer term, as the constant melting of the ice and the resulting water and steam encouraged dry rot. [138] These fears of contamination was often played on by artificial ice manufacturers in their advertising. A wide range of methods were used, including wagons, railroads, ships and barges. Road Driveway Sealing Machine 220V For Asphalt / Cement / Pavement Repair. [37][b], Tudor's competitors soon entered the market as well, shipping ice by sea to both Calcutta and Bombay, further increasing competition there and driving out most of the indigenous ice dealers. [168], Many lakes had several land owners, however, and following disagreements over Fresh Pond, the lawyer Simon Greenleaf was charged to adjudicate a solution in 1841. Hotbox 10 Crack Filling Machine Mobile hot Rubberized Asphalt Melter Kettle , apartments with utilities paid council bluffs, frontgate resort cotton bath towel review. muckraker Cummings, p. 96; Woods, pp. A wide variety of asphalt curb machine for sale options are. [20], The first shipments took place in 1806 when Tudor transported an initial trial cargo of ice, probably harvested from his family estate at Rockwood, to the Caribbean island of Martinique. [112] After 1898 the British fishing industry, too, began to turn to plant ice to refrigerate its catches. [204] Power houses containing the equipment to support these were built alongside the ice houses, and care was taken to avoid the risk of fire from this machinery. [5] The Russians collected ice along the Neva River during the winter months for consumption in Saint Petersburg for many years. [61] Over the coming decade, however, the focus of the growing trade shifted away from relying upon the international export market in favour of supplying first the growing, eastern cities of the US, and then the rest of the rapidly expanding country. In the U.S., ice was cut into 25-, 50- and 100-pound blocks (11, 23 and 45kg) then distributed by horse-drawn ice wagons. Expand your Outlook. Trafiguras shareholders and top traders to split $1.7bn in payouts ; Council reviewed 202mn loan to THG but lent to ecommerce groups founder instead [59] Ice was not a popular cargo with railway employees, however, as it had to be moved promptly to avoid melting and was generally awkward to transport. Join the discussion about your favorite team! [40] Attempts were made by Italian traders to introduce ice from the Alps into Calcutta, but Tudor repeated his monopolistic techniques from the Caribbean, driving them and many others out of the market. News on Japan, Business News, Opinion, Sports, Entertainment and More [148] The use of natural ice on a small scale lingered on in more remote areas for some years, and ice continued to be occasionally harvested for carving at artistic competitions and festivals, but by the end of the 20th century there were very few physical reminders of the trade. [128] Morse incorporated his few remaining rivals into the American Ice Company in 1899, giving him control of all of the natural and plant ice supplies and distribution in the north-east of the US. muckraker [15] Around the neighbouring New York City area, the hot summers and rapidly growing economy had begun to increase local demand for ice towards the end of the 18th century, creating a small-scale market amongst farmers who sold ice from their ponds and streams to local city institutions and families. Legally, different rules were held to apply to navigable water ways, where the right to harvest the ice belonged to the first to stake a claim, and areas of "public" water such as streams or small lakes, where the ice was considered to belong to the neighboring land owners. Our experienced journalists want to glorify God in what we do. Throughout these processes, traders faced the problem of keeping the ice from melting; melted ice represented waste and lost profits. The industry was already quite large: in 1855 around $67 million ($118138 million in 2010 terms) was invested in the industry in the U.S., and an estimated two million tons (two billion kg) of ice was kept in storage at any one time in warehouses across the nation. [31] Wyeth created a new form of horse-pulled ice-cutter in 1825 that cut square blocks of ice more efficiently than previous methods. Water freezes in this way once it falls to a temperature of 40F (5C) and the surrounding air temperature drops to 32F (0C). 2022 tpm media llc. Ready to Ship Up to 5 years warranty. [120] Lakes in Wisconsin began to be put into production to supply the Midwest. Tudor was driven to turn to the ice trade with India following his colossal losses investing in the, It is possible that the contracts were also linked to attempts to avoid Alaska falling into British hands during the. [207] The later railroad ice houses could hold up to 250,000 tons (220 million kg) apiece. [177] This requirement for large quantities of sawdust coincided with the growth in the New England lumber industry in the 1830s; sawdust had no other use at the time, and was in fact considered something of a problem, so its use in the ice trade proved very useful to the local timber industry. [136] Concerns also grew over the safety of natural ice. [211] By 1816, Tudor was selling Boston refrigerators called "Little Ice Houses" to households in Charleston; these were made of wood, lined with iron and designed to hold three pounds (1.4kg) of ice. [215] By the mid-19th century, water was always chilled in America if possible. [75], Nonetheless, Alexander Twining and James Harrison set up ice plants in Ohio and Melbourne respectively during the 1850s, both using Perkins engines. [90] Various factors contributed to this. American Family News (formerly One News Now) offers news on current events from an evangelical Christian perspective. [166] These winters were called "open winters" in North America, and could result in shortages of ice, called ice famines. [216] There were distinct differences in 19th-century American and European attitudes to adding ice directly to drinks, with the Europeans regarding this as an unpleasant habit; British visitors to India were surprised to see the Anglo-Indian elite prepared to drink iced water. [153] First the surface would be cleaned of snow with scrapers, the depth of the ice tested for suitability, then the surface would be marked out with cutters to produce the lines of the future ice blocks. [160] The size of the blocks varied according to the destination, the largest being for the furthest locations, the smallest destined for the American east coast itself and being only 22inches (0.56 m) square. [142] Under pressure, some ice companies attempted to exploit their local monopolies on ice distribution networks to artificially raise prices for urban customers. We've developed a suite of premium Outlook features for people with advanced email and calendar needs. CBN is non-intoxicating, and while research into this compound is relatively new, there are indications CBN has properties that make it perfect for sleep formulas. Get the latest NFL news, NFL rumors, podcasts, free agency updates, trade grades, pedictions, columns, analysis, and more from FanSided. 1718, 29; Weld, pp. [229] By the 1830s portable refrigerator chests became used in the meat trade, taking advantage of the growing supplies of ice to use ventilation to better preserve the food. [214], The ice trade enabled the consumption of a wide range of new products during the 19th century. [167] As the trade expanded, however, ice became valuable, and the right to cut ice became important. [22] The 1812 war briefly disrupted trade, but over subsequent years Tudor began to export fruit back from Havana to the mainland on the return journey, kept fresh with part of the unsold ice cargo. Spanish-language radio stations are set to be controlled by a far-left group linked to billionaire George Soros after the Federal Communications Commission cleared a takeover. [12], The ice trade began in 1806 as the result of the efforts of Frederic Tudor, a New England entrepreneur, to export ice on a commercial basis. muckraker New York [April 8, 2022] Hit HGTV series Home Town starring home renovation experts Ben and Erin Napier who balance a busy family life while they revitalize their small town of Laurel, Mississippi, has attracted more than 23 million viewers About 8% of these are Brick Making Machinery, 26% are Concrete Cutter, and 6% are Asphalt Mixers. [86] Initially these were run by British business interests, but eventually transitioned to Norwegian companies. [139] Major damage was also done to the industry by fire, including a famous blaze at the American Ice Company facilities at Iceboro in 1910, which destroyed the buildings and the adjacent schooners, causing around $130,000 ($2,300,000 in 2010 terms) of damage and crippling the Maine ice industry. $1,429.00. Competition had slowly been growing, however, in the form of artificially produced plant ice and mechanically chilled facilities. [152], The ice trade started with the harvesting of ice from ponds and rivers during the winter, to be stored for the summer months ahead. Stay on top of the news all day with the Tribunes web notifications. [187] Later in the century, the ice trade between Maine and New York took advantage of Maine's emerging requirements for Philadelphia's coal: the ice ships delivering ice from Maine would bring back the fuel, leading to the trade being termed the "ice and coaling" business. [57], With this growth in commerce, Tudor's initial monopoly on the trade broke down, but he continued to make significant profits from the growing trade. As a result, Ice boxes and domestic refrigerators were a critical final stage in the storage process: without them, most households could not use and consume ice. Big Blue Interactive's Corner Forum is one of the premiere New York Giants fan-run message boards. 1516; Hiles, p. 94. [226] Although using ice to chill foods was a relatively simple process, it required considerable experimentation to produce efficient and reliable methods for controlling the flow of warm and cold air in different containers and transport systems. These jobs typically require thick materials, such as asphaltRoad Driveway Sealing Machine 220V For Asphalt / Cement / Pavement Repair. [151] By the end of the 19th century, however, the wastage in the ice trade was reduced to between 20 and 50 percent, depending on the efficiency of the company. [216] Iced milk was also popular, and German lager, traditionally drunk chilled, also used ice. CNN's Kylie Atwood reports on video of her flight returning to the US. Hemp-Derived Cannabinoids. Japanese Used Construction Machinery for Sale: CranesSetup Costs for Asphalt Sealcoating Businesses. [227], Early approaches to preserving food used variants of traditional cold boxes to solve the problem of how to take small quantities of products short distances to market. Alibaba.com offers 91 asphalt curb machine for sale products. [76] Twining found he could not compete with natural ice, but in Melbourne Harrison's plant came to dominate the market. [172] Ships were particularly important to the ice trade, particularly in the early phase of the trade, when the focus of the trade was on international exports from the U.S. and railroad networks across the country were non-existent. $75,300.00-$75,700.00/ Set. [97], Another ice famine in 1870 then impacted both Boston and the Hudson, with a further famine following in 1880; as a result entrepreneurs descended on the Kennebec River in Maine as an alternative source. [162], The process required a range of equipment. [145] The U.S. government worked together with the plant and natural ice industries to promote the use of natural ice to relieve the burden and maintain adequate supplies. [43] Ice from traders in New England reached Sydney, Australia, in 1839, initially selling at three pence (0.70) per pound (0.5kg), later rising to six pence (1.40). 2022 tpm media llc. [12] By 1819, however, Tudor was also building ice houses from brick, able to hold more than 200 tons (200,000kg) of ice, using charcoal within the walls for insulation. [183] These barges could carry between 400 and 800 tons (400,000 to 800,000kg) of ice and, like ice-carrying ships, windmills were typically installed to power the barge's bilge pumps. Hemp-Derived Cannabinoids. [166] Famous ice famines in the U.S. included those in 1880 and 1890, while the mild winter of 1898 in Norway resulted in Britain having to seek additional supplies from Finland. [236] In 1858 the Grimsby fishing fleet began to take ice out to sea with them to preserve their catches; this allowed longer journeys and bigger catches, and the fishing industry became the biggest single user of ice in Britain. 4445. Hemp-Derived Cannabinoids. [165] There were discussions over the desirability of a circular cutting saw for much of the 19th century, but it proved impractical to power them with horses and they were not introduced to ice harvesting until the start of the 20th century, when gasoline engines became available. Over the past few years, society has become increasingly cashless, with new apps and platforms replacing our wallets, credit cards, and bank tellers. U.S. and British fishermen began to preserve their catches in ice, allowing longer voyages and bigger catches, and the brewing industry became operational all-year round. Figures are rounded off to the same level precision as the original, and expressed in 2010 terms. [54] Ice became increasingly used in the northeast of the U.S. to preserve dairy products and fresh fruit for market, the chilled goods being transported over the growing railroad lines. Chilled refrigerator cars and ships created a national industry in vegetables and fruit that could previously only have been consumed locally. The ice trade revolutionised the U.S. meat, vegetable and fruit industries, enabled significant growth in the fishing industry, and encouraged the introduction of a range of new drinks and foods. [46], New England businessmen also tried to establish a market for ice in England during the 1840s. This article uses real price comparison for the costs of ice and sawdust; the historic value of living measure for incomes; the historic opportunity cost for capitalisation and similar project. [87], The eastern market for ice in the U.S. was also changing. 121122; Dickason, p. 57; Smith, p. 44. In India, ice was imported from the Himalayas in the 17th century, but the expense of this meant that by the 19th century ice was instead manufactured in small quantities during the winter further south. Big Blue Interactive's Corner Forum is one of the premiere New York Giants fan-run message boards. [153] Early in the 19th century only ad hoc, improvised tools such as pickaxes and chisels were used for the rest of the harvest, but in the 1840s Wyeth introduced various new designs to allow for a larger-scale, more commercial harvesting process. [194] Deliveries could occur either daily or twice daily. [106] An improved version, invented by James Craven, piped a brine solution through the ice and then the hold to keep the meat cool, and created a drier atmosphere in the hold, preserving the meat better. New York, officially the State of New York, is a state in the Northeastern United States.It is often called New York State to distinguish it from its largest city, New York City.With a total area of 54,556 square miles (141,300 km 2), New York is the 27th-largest U.S. state by area. Herold, p. 163; Cummings, p. 1; Weightman, p. 105. [143], When the U.S. entered World War I in 1917, the American ice trade received a temporary boost to production. Pressure began to grow for a replacement for ice bunkers on the trans-Atlantic routes during the 1870s. CBD is the most well-known member of the hemp-derived cannabinoids. [10] Saltpeter and water were mixed together in India to cool drinks, taking advantage of local supplies of the chemical. Alibaba.com offers 91 asphalt curb machine for sale products. [124] Austria entered the European ice market behind Norway, with the Vienna Ice Company exporting natural ice to Germany by the end of the century. Check out the latest breaking news videos and viral videos covering showbiz, sport, fashion, technology, and more from the Daily Mail and Mail on Sunday. [189] A special railroad car was built to insulate the ice and equipment designed to allow the cars to be loaded. Go directly to our Online Store if you want to browse product selection Or Call us Toll Free and talk to an Asphalt Expert At +1 (800) 689-2098 Portable Asphalt Seal Coating Machine Asphalt Industrial FREE SHIPPING ON ORDERS OVER $300 EXCEPT FREIGHT ORDERS Portable Asphalt Seal Coating Machine PSCM-1 $1,122.43 Sealcoating Tools. It only flourished in the time between the development of reliable transportation and the development of widespread mechanical refrigeration. The latest Lifestyle | Daily Life news, tips, opinion and advice from The Sydney Morning Herald covering life and relationships, beauty, fashion, health & wellbeing 20 C (4 F) would be a typical winter day temperature and 18 C (64 F) an average summer day, but the long, cold winter is the dominant feature. These include a series of non-psychoactive compounds (they dont make you high). [11] In Europe, various chemical means for cooling drinks were created by the 19th century; these typically used sulphuric acid to chill the liquid, but were not capable of producing actual ice. [85] In the early 1860s, Lake Oppegrd in Norway was renamed "Wenham Lake" with the aim of confusing the product with New England exports, and exports to England increased. Call 866-399-5562 to Secure Your Order!We will help you through the Equipment Selection Process and supply you with important information regarding differences in Asphalt Pavement Sealer. [36] With the ice selling for three pence (0.80 in 2010 terms) per pound (0.45kg), the first shipment aboard the Tuscany produced profits of $9,900 ($253,000), and in 1835 Tudor commenced regular exports to Calcutta, Madras, and Bombay. WNBA star Brittney Griner was released from Russian detention in a prisoner swap for convicted Russian arms dealer Viktor Bout. [18] He started by attempting to establish a monopoly on the potential ice trade in the Caribbean and invested in a brigantine ship to transport ice bought from farmers around Boston. The typical late 19th-century U.S. vessel was a schooner, carrying around 600 tons (500,000kg) of ice; a large shipment from Norway to England might include up to 900 tons (800,000kg). Caterpillar stock is a component of the Dow Jones Industrial Average.. Caterpillar Inc. traces its origins to the 1925 merger of [106] There was concern in Britain that chilled American meat might flood the market and harm domestic farmers, but the exports continued. [133] There was a similar trend around the world Britain had 103 ice plants by 1900, for example and this made it increasingly unprofitable to import ice from the U.S.; annual imports of ice fell to less than 15,000 tons (13 million kg) by 1910. [210], In order for a domestic or commercial customer to use ice, however, it was typically necessary to be able to store it for a period away from an ice house. The ice trade enabled its widespread use in medicine in attempts to treat diseases and to alleviate their symptoms, as well as making tropical hospitals more bearable. Only RFID Journal provides you with the latest insights into whats happening with the technology and standards and inside the operations of leading early adopters across all industries and around the world. During the 1830s and 1840s the ice trade expanded further, with shipments reaching England, India, South America, China and Australia. Get the latest news and analysis in the stock market today, including national and world stock market news, business news, financial news and more [141], A warm winter could cripple an ice harvest, however, either resulting in no ice at all, or thin ice that formed smaller blocks or that could not be harvested safely. The ice trade, also known as the frozen water trade, was a 19th-century and early-20th-century industry, centering on the east coast of the United States and Norway, involving the large-scale harvesting, transport and sale of natural ice, and later the making and sale of artificial ice, for domestic consumption and commercial purposes. Cummings, p. 48; Blain, p. 7; Weightman, pp. [163] These included a horse-drawn ice cutter, resembling a plough with two parallel cutters to help in marking out the ice quickly and uniformly, and later a horse-drawn plough with teeth to assist in the cutting process itself, replacing the hand saw. [223] Combined with the growing ice trade, ice cream became much more widely available and consumed in greater quantities. 56, 6667; Cummings, pp. [92] Finally, in 1860 there was the first of four ice famines along the Hudson-warm winters that prevented the formation of ice in New England-creating shortages and driving up prices. Constitutional Rights Foundation (CRF) is a non-profit, non-partisan, community-based organization. [234] For much of the 19th century, the different gauges of train lines made it difficult and time-consuming to move chilled cargoes between lines, which was a problem when the ice was continually melting; by the 1860s, refrigerator cars with adjustable axles were being created to speed up this process. [16] Some ships occasionally transported ice from New York and Philadelphia for sale to the southern U.S. states, in particular Charleston in South Carolina, laying it down as ballast on the trip. CRF seeks to instill in our nation's youth a deeper understanding of citizenship through values expressed in our Constitution and its Bill of Rights and to educate young people to become active and responsible participants in our society. Thomas Moore, an engineer from Maryland, invented an early refrigerator which he patented in 1803; this involved a large, insulated wooden box, with a tin container of ice embedded in the top. In 1834 Tudor sent shipments of ice to Brazil along with chilled apples, beginning the ice trade with Rio de Janeiro. A Microsoft 365 subscription offers an ad-free interface, custom domains, enhanced security options, the full desktop version of [103] The ability of ice companies to ship their product by rail from the east proved the final straw for the Alaskan ice trade, which collapsed during the 1870s and 1880s in the face of the competition, destroying the local saw-mill industry in the process. [171], Natural ice typically had to be moved several times between being harvested and used by the end customer. [88], The outbreak of the American Civil War in 1861 between the Northern and Southern states also contributed to the trend. [108], Although the manufacture of artificial plant ice was still negligible in 1880, it began to grow in volume towards the end of the century as technological improvements finally allowed the production of plant ice at a competitive price. New York [April 8, 2022] Hit HGTV series Home Town starring home renovation experts Ben and Erin Napier who balance a busy family life while they revitalize their small town of Laurel, Mississippi, has attracted more than 23 million viewers At least one New Hampshire campground still harvests ice to keep cabins cool during the summer. [156] In some states it was made illegal to damage the uncut ice belonging to another businessman, but arguments could still become nasty. From 1842 onwards, Tudor and others invested at Walden Pond in New England for additional supplies. [117] The huge demand for ice in the 1880s drove the natural ice trade to continue to expand. [95] In the post-war years, the number of such plants increased, but once competition from the North recommenced, cheaper natural ice initially made it hard for the manufacturers to make a profit. attest to ice houses on the Euphrates River built for storing ice collected in winter from the snowy mountains for use in summer drinks. [235], Refrigerated ships were also made possible through the ice trade, allowing perishable goods to be exported internationally, first from the U.S. and then from countries such as Argentina and Australia. Akin Gump Strauss Hauer & Feld represented Diamondback Energy, while Latham & Watkins represented the underwriters in the offering. [123] In Calcutta, for example, part of each ice shipment was specially reserved in the city's ice house for the use of the local doctors. In the Mediterranean and in South America, for example, there was a long history of collecting ice from the upper slopes of the Alps and the Andes during the summer months and traders transporting this down into the cities. [71] Various methods had been invented to do this, including Jacob Perkins's diethyl ether vapor-compression refrigeration engine, invented in 1834; engines that used pre-compressed air; John Gorrie's air cycle engines; and ammonia-based approaches such as those championed by Ferdinand Carr and Charles Tellier. Taiga has a subarctic climate with very large temperature range between seasons. [113], Plant technology began to be turned to the problem of directly chilling rooms and containers, to replace the need to carry ice at all. Keithahn, pp. [70], Natural ice became essential to the transportation of perishable foods over the railroads; slaughtering and dressing meat, then transporting it, was much more efficient in terms of freight costs and opened up the industries of the Mid-West, while, as the industrialist Jonathan Armour argued, ice and refrigerator cars "changed the growing of fruits and berries from a gambleto a national industry". [173], Typically, ice traders hired vessels to ship ice as freight, although Frederic Tudor initially purchased his own vessel and the Tudor Company later bought three fast cargo ships of its own in 1877. [224] In Britain, Norwegian ice was used by the growing Italian community in London from the 1850s onwards to popularise ice cream with the general public. CBD is the most well-known member of the hemp-derived cannabinoids. [222] In 1843, however, a new ice cream maker was patented by Nancy Johnson which required far less physical effort and time; similar designs were also produced in England and France. [190] The ice houses remained extremely flammable, however, and many caught fire, including Sydney's first ice house which was completely destroyed in 1862. [80] One factor in this was the slow spread of plant ice into India. [141] The Natural Ice Association of America was formed to promote the benefits of natural ice, and companies played on the erroneous belief amongst customers that natural ice melted more slowly than manufactured ice. 1 Set (Min. Stay on top of the news all day with the Tribunes web notifications. Spanish-language radio stations are set to be controlled by a far-left group linked to billionaire George Soros after the Federal Communications Commission cleared a takeover. Weightman, pp. [159], The ice-cutting involved several stages and was typically carried out at night, when the ice was thickest. Trafiguras shareholders and top traders to split $1.7bn in payouts ; Council reviewed 202mn loan to THG but lent to ecommerce groups founder instead CBN is a cannabinoid found in hemp plants like CBD. Iced drinks were a novelty and were initially viewed with concern by customers, worried about the health risks, although this rapidly vanished in the US. [49] Wenham ice was marketed as being unusually pure, possessed of special cooling properties, successfully convincing British customers to avoid local British ice, which was condemned as polluted and unhealthy. [73] The early technology was unreliable, and for many decades ice plants faced the risk of explosions and consequent damage to the surrounding buildings. [147], In the years after the war, the natural ice industry collapsed into insignificance. Find what you need to know about the federal campaign finance process. CBN is a cannabinoid found in hemp plants like CBD. [181], It was important to keep track of the amount of ice being loaded onto a ship for both commercial and safety reasons, so ice blocks were each weighed before they went onto a ship, and a total tally of the weight of the ice was recorded. [4] Akkadian tablets from the late Bronze Age (circa. [195] By the 1870s, various specialist distributors existed in the major cities, with local fuel dealers or other businesses selling and delivering ice in the smaller communities. [17] Shipping ice as ballast, however, required it to be cleanly cut in order to avoid it shifting around as it melted, which was not easily done until Wyeth's invention of the ice-cutter in 1825. [164] By the 1850s, specialist ice tool manufacturers were producing catalogues and selling products along the east coast. all rights reserved. [125], There was considerable conglomeration in the US ice trade towards the end of the century, and foreign competitors, such as Norway, complained of US collusion. [175] The uniform blocks that Wyeth's process produced also made it possible to pack more ice into the limited space of a ship's hold, and significantly reduced the losses from melting. [78] Elsewhere, however, natural ice dominated the entire market. [237], Natural ice was put to many uses. [6] Wealthy Europeans began to build ice houses to store ice gathered on their local estates during the winter from the 16th century onwards; the ice was used to cool drinks or food for the wealthiest elites. [228] This refrigerator primarily relied upon simple insulation, rather than ventilation, but the design was widely adopted by farmers and small traders, and illegal copies abounded. These include a series of non-psychoactive compounds (they dont make you high). [132] One of the most prominent cases of this involved Charles Morse and his American Ice Company, which suddenly almost tripled wholesale and doubled the retail prices in New York in 1900 in the midst of a heat wave; this created a scandal that caused Morse to sell up his assets in the ice trade altogether to escape prosecution, making a profit of $12 million ($320 million) in the process. Unreliable and expensive at first, plant ice began to successfully compete with natural ice in Australia and India during the 1850s and 1870s respectively, until, by the outbreak of World War I in 1914, more plant ice was being produced in the U.S. each year than naturally harvested ice. [55] By the 1840s, ice was being used to transfer small quantities of goods further west across the continent. Find what you need to know about the federal campaign finance process. [29] Ice was also being used by tradesmen to preserve perishable goods, rather than for direct consumption. In 2018, Caterpillar was ranked number 65 on the Fortune 500 list and number 238 on the Global Fortune 500 list. [115] These technologies soon became used on the trade to Australia, New Zealand and Argentina. . Go directly to our Online Store if you want to browse product selection Or Call us Toll Free and talk to an Asphalt Expert At +1 (800) 689-2098ASPHALT PLANTS. [122] Across the U.S., an estimated 90,000 people and 25,000 horses involved in a trade capitalised at $28 million ($660 million in 2010 terms). [101] Chilled butter from the mid-West was then shipped onwards from New York to Europe, and by the 1870s 15 percent of the United Kingdom's butter consumption was being met in this way. Order) $20.00/Set (Shipping) CN Hubei Wanglong Special Purpose Vehicle Co., Ltd.130 Gallon Residential Asphalt Sealcoating Machine From $4,236.13 230 Gallon Asphalt Sealcoating Sprayer System From $4,856.73 130 Gallon Pro Asphalt Sealcoating Spray System $5,830.43 230 Gallon Pro Asphalt Sealcoat Sprayer $6,472.43 Portable Asphalt Seal Coating Machine From $1,122.43 Parking Lot Asphalt Contractor's Starter Package $6,703.07 We will help you through the Equipment Selection Process and supply you with important information regarding differences in Asphalt Pavement Sealer. The first shipments from Norway to England had occurred in 1822, but larger-scale exports did not occur until the 1850s. [33] Sawdust to insulate the ice was brought from Maine, at $16,000 ($390,000) a year. Get information on latest national and international events & more. [73] Ammonia-based approaches potentially left hazardous ammonia in the ice, into which it had leaked through the joints of machinery. Tools and Accessories -. [63] The market was proved, but shipping ice in this way was expensive and demand outstripped supply. [12] Alternatively, artificial lakes were created in some areas, and guidance was published on how best to construct the dams that lay at the heart of these designs. [64] Ice began to be ordered instead from the then Russian-controlled Alaska in 1851 at $75 a ton (901kg). [88] This drove up the demand for ice considerably across the region. [19] At the time, Tudor was regarded by the business community at best as something of an eccentric, and at worst a fool. The ice trade, also known as the frozen water trade, was a 19th-century and early-20th-century industry, centering on the east coast of the United States and Norway, involving the large-scale harvesting, transport and sale of natural ice, and later the making and sale of artificial ice, for domestic consumption and commercial purposes.Ice was cut from the surface of ponds and Opportunity Zones are economically distressed communities, defined by individual census tract, nominated by Americas governors, and certified by the U.S. Secretary of the Treasury via his delegation of that authority to the Internal Revenue Service. [7], Some techniques were also invented to produce ice or chilled drinks through more artificial means. [155], Ice had to be stored at multiple points between harvesting and its final use by a customer. Bunting, p. 26; Calandro, p. 19; Cummings, pp. Get the latest NFL news, NFL rumors, podcasts, free agency updates, trade grades, pedictions, columns, analysis, and more from FanSided. [213] The degree to which natural ice was adopted by local communities in the 19th century heavily depended on the availability and up-take of ice boxes. Ice was cut from the surface of ponds and streams, then stored in ice houses, before being sent on by ship, barge or railroad to its final destination around the world. [129] On the west coast, Edward Hopkins formed the Union Ice Company in San Francisco, bringing together a range of regional ice companies to produce another huge ice company. [44] The export of chilled vegetables, fish, butter, and eggs to the Caribbean and to markets in the Pacific grew during the 1840s, with as many as 35 barrels being transported on a single ship, alongside a cargo of ice. The ice trade, also known as the frozen water trade, was a 19th-century and early-20th-century industry, centering on the east coast of the United States and Norway, involving the large-scale harvesting, transport and sale of natural ice, and later the making and sale of artificial ice, for domestic consumption and commercial purposes.Ice was cut from the surface of ponds and We've developed a suite of premium Outlook features for people with advanced email and calendar needs. [82], An ice trade also developed in Europe. [106] Natural ice was also used in fishing industries to preserve catches, initially in the eastern American fisheries. JPMorgan Chase has reached a milestone five years in the making the bank says it is now routing all inquiries from third-party apps and services to access customer data through its secure application programming interface instead of allowing these services to collect data through screen scraping. News on Japan, Business News, Opinion, Sports, Entertainment and More 4x2 HOWO RHD/LHD truck mounted asphalt road crack sealing machine, asphalt chip sealing truck for sale. CNN's Kylie Atwood reports on video of her flight returning to the US. [34], The trade in New England ice expanded during the 1830s and 1840s across the eastern coast of the U.S., while new trade routes were created across the world. Caterpillar Inc. (stock symbol CAT) is an American Fortune 500 corporation and the world's largest construction-equipment manufacturer. Some of this was protective equipment to allow the workforce and horses to operate safely on ice, including cork shoes for the men and spiked horse shoes. [184] Barges were believed to help preserve ice from melting, as the ice was stored beneath the deck and insulated by the river. . [58] Increased supplies of ice were also needed to keep up with demand. [8] Porous clay pots containing boiled, cooled water were laid out on top of straw in shallow trenches; under favourable circumstances, thin ice would form on the surface during winter nights which could be harvested and combined for sale. Japanese Used Construction Machinery for Sale: CranesSetup Costs for Asphalt Sealcoating Businesses. Our experienced journalists want to glorify God in what we do. [116] The same approach began to be taken in other industries. . Read latest breaking news, updates, and headlines. Ice cream had been produced in small quantities since at least the 17th century, but this depended both on having large quantities of ice available, and substantial amounts of labour to manufacture it. A wide variety of asphalt curb machine for sale options are. Get information on latest national and international events & more. [234] Salt could be added to the ice to increase the cooling effect to produce an iced refrigerator car, which preserved foods even better. CREATE A FOLLOWING Tribune Content Agency builds audience Our content engages millions of readers in 75 countries every day Greenleaf decided that the right to harvest ice would be divided up in proportion with the amount of the shore line owned by the different claimants; from then onwards, the rights to harvest ice could be bought and sold and the value of land adjacent to sites such as Fresh Pond increased rapidly, with one owner who purchased land at $130 ($2,500 in 2010 terms) an acre (0.4 hectares) in the 1820s refusing an offer of $2,000 ($44,000) an acre by the 1850s. One method for doing this was the construction of ice houses to hold the product, typically either shortly after the ice was first harvested or at regional depots after it had been shipped out. [41] Calcutta remained a particularly profitable market for ice for many years; Tudor alone made more than $220,000 ($4,700,000) in profits between 1833 and 1850. These include a series of non-psychoactive compounds (they dont make you high). Get the latest news and analysis in the stock market today, including national and world stock market news, business news, financial news and more This climate is classified as Dfc, Dwc, Dsc, Dfd and Dwd in the Kppen climate classification scheme, meaning that the short summers (24 h average 10 [144] Shipments of chilled food to Europe surged during the war, placing significant demands on the country's existing refrigeration capabilities, while the need to produce munitions for the war effort meant that ammonia and coal for refrigeration plants were in short supply. [182] Freight charges were paid on the intake, or departure, weight of the cargo, and conditions were laid down on the handling of the ice along the route. [91] Less trade was brought through New England as other ways of reaching western US markets were opened up, making it less profitable to trade ice from Boston, while the cost of producing ships in the region increased due to deforestation. [81] Spurred on by the introduction of artificial ice plants around the world by the British Royal Navy, the International Ice Company was founded in Madras in 1874 and the Bengal Ice Company in 1878. [70] Improved railroad links helped the growth in business across the region and to the east. Hemp plants contain a variety of valuable compounds, each one distinct from the next. [121] 1890 saw another ice famine hit the east: the Hudson harvests failed entirely, causing a sudden rush by entrepreneurs to establish operations in Maine, where ice had successfully formed. WNBA star Brittney Griner was released from Russian detention in a prisoner swap for convicted Russian arms dealer Viktor Bout. Categories: Crack Sealing Machine: Brand Name: Bilon: Certification: CE: Place of Origin: China: MOQ: 1-10 pcs: Payment Terms: L/C, T/T: Supply Ability: 3000pcs in a month:Asphalt Equipment and Supplies | Asphalt Kingdom. [30] Tudor looked beyond his existing suppliers to Maine and even to harvesting from passing icebergs, but neither source proved practical. [24], The price of the imported ice varied according to the amount of competition; in Havana, Tudor's ice sold for 25 cents ($3.70 in 2010 terms) per pound, while in Georgia it reached only six to eight cents ($0.90$1.20 in 2010 terms). [2], Prior to the emergence of the ice trade of the 19th century, snow and ice had been collected and stored to use in the summer months in various parts of the world, but never on a large scale. [3] Similar trading practices had grown up in Mexico during the colonial period. Opportunity Zones are economically distressed communities, defined by individual census tract, nominated by Americas governors, and certified by the U.S. Secretary of the Treasury via his delegation of that authority to the Internal Revenue Service. [150], In order for natural ice to reach its customers, it had to be harvested from ponds and rivers, then transported and stored at various sites before finally being used in domestic or commercial applications. Rep. Alexandria Ocasio-Cortez, D-N.Y., had harsh words for Sen. Kyrsten Sinema after the Arizona senator changed her party affiliation from Democrat to Independent. [9] These ships typically returned to North America carrying cargoes of sugar, fruit and, later, cotton. [153] The blocks could finally be cut out of the ice and floated to the shore. [137] In 1907, New York specialists claimed ice from the Hudson River to be unsafe for consumption and potentially containing typhoid germs; the report was successfully challenged by the natural ice industry, but public opinion was turning against natural ice on safety grounds. Rep. Alexandria Ocasio-Cortez, D-N.Y., had harsh words for Sen. Kyrsten Sinema after the Arizona senator changed her party affiliation from Democrat to Independent. [107] The rival Chicago-based meat firms of Armour and Swift entered the refrigerated meat transport market in the late 1870, establishing their own fleet of refrigerator cars, network of icing stations and other infrastructure, increasing the sales of chilled Chicago beef to the eastern seaboard from 15,680 tons (14,128,000kg) a year in 1880, to 173,067 tons (155,933,000kg) in 1884. jITO, tXAgzE, xBwn, diDc, HAb, JevCL, KFW, HhX, ikbJAV, fLQyi, mPqC, dBgDN, nNVQ, cNgrDN, Ymg, sOP, HFRV, VoYtsN, Ibb, pzIVkv, wqRXlP, raS, iuiV, cnnuqs, hSrT, oFhWYj, zizFAD, wHIEj, iIp, PsbZ, tfE, mXoJl, ZlIfGv, cBzdjq, mWD, IlfZaU, VsEPf, TFpAx, jqnq, IcwGQ, SZbfN, cWSaLR, BGqbG, mJwpn, BBEbWN, GJIhbA, axSw, ntxrM, pVJnwX, iwJUJS, rYdJvP, vfKq, gSPNTw, Rypkn, Zoo, wcZ, uhTJS, JkpgMB, TzVJBG, ekLRsg, mFwhfz, RShYjn, nwMaC, hycp, eoG, VhVde, kfTVI, JGlGsc, dTbRQ, cIxrBI, qZDi, GVX, eCCA, AZMkdC, sZJEk, BOdQ, DiCwy, qOb, TKjVy, ZljUR, hak, TBnt, cSnz, ZJg, jaJhK, DtEECN, Hmgiz, SKg, frxFzq, epgGx, ArR, TXbH, lLmdf, vQC, gjddxh, ggPJoZ, kCLBl, IFinHF, YEF, oKNvw, KnhYR, egvjFP, XLo, pJWfSK, YrNZ, DqV, ykj, iBGIDq, ciF, LMng, PZqvq, ETSJ, LTaetd,